硕士学位论文论贝克特在《等待戈多》、《终局》和《跌倒的人》中对爱尔兰性的重现田月指导教师：刘爱英教授专业名称：英语语言文学研究方向：英语文学论文提交时间：2018年4月论文答辩时间：2018年5月论文编号：2018101
SichuanInternationalStudiesUniversityRepresentingIrishnessinBeckett’sWaitingforGodot，EndgameandAllThatFallbyTianYueAthesissubmittedtotheGraduateSchoolinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeofMasterofArtsinEnglishLanguageandLiteratureunderthesupervisionofProfessorLiuAiyingChongqing,P.R.ChinaMay2018
摘要分析爱尔兰作家作品中的爱尔兰性是一种常用的文学鉴赏方式。爱尔兰性，在一定程度上指的是民族身份。然而由于贝克特的经历，关于其身份的探讨从未结束，直到2009年以其名字命名的“塞缪尔·贝克特桥”建成，他的身份才被爱尔兰认可。尽管贝克特的身份有诸多疑问，其作品中的爱尔兰特征很模糊，但这并不能阻碍我们去探索其作品中的爱尔兰成分。贝克特作品中的一些细节暗示了他对爱尔兰的关心，并展示了其独特的爱尔兰性。纵观评论家对贝克特及其作品的研究，不难发现这些评论主要从荒诞性和存在主义的角度进行分析，很少有人涉及贝克特作品中的爱尔兰性。在代表作《等待戈多》、《终局》和《凡跌倒的》中，通过对背景的设计、人物的构思和历史的追溯，贝克特展现了其在创作中对爱尔兰的情感。因此，本文将从后现代的角度结合文本细读来探索贝克特这三部作品中的爱尔兰性。这将丰富贝克特作品探索的宝库，更能为以后的探索贡献新的视角。除引言和结论外，论文正文部分由三章组成。第一章通过分析作品的背景来揭示贝克特如何通过营造氛围来构建爱尔兰性，以及如何通过运用爱尔兰地理风景如何呈现其对爱尔兰的关怀以展现爱尔兰；第二章详述特定时期的爱尔兰人物形象，分析贝克特如何从三个方面—心理状态、身体状况和语言选择来展现其作品中的爱尔兰性：。第三章阐述了爱尔兰历史在贝克特作品中的再现，并分析贝克特如何通过重现爱尔兰历史来展示其对爱尔兰无法释怀的情感，从而揭示其所展现的爱尔兰性。关键词：贝克特；《等待戈多》；《终局》；《凡跌倒的》；背景；人物；爱尔兰历史；爱尔兰性ii
AbstractAnalyzingIrishnessinliteraryworkswrittenbyIrishwritersisacommonway.Irishness,tosomeextent,referstothenationalidentity.However,becauseofBeckett’sexperience,thediscussionabouthisidentityhasneverendedandupto2009,hisidentityeventuallywasacceptedbyIrelandthroughthefactthatthebridgenamedafterhisnamewasbuilt.AlthoughhisidentitywasquestionedandtheevidenceaboutIrelandinhisworksisobscure,itcannothinderustoexploretheIrishfeaturesinhisworks.SomedetailsinhisplaysshowushisconcernaboutIreland,andilluminatehisuniqueIrishness.Throughoutcritics’researchonBeckettandhisworks,itisnotdifficulttoknowthatthesecriticsdidtheresearchmainlyfromtheperspectivesofabsurdityandexistentialismandsoon,fewofthemfocusontheIrishnessinBeckett’sworks.InWaitingforGodot,EndgameandAllThatFall,whicharehisrepresentatives,BeckettexpresseshisexpressiontowardsIrelandbydesigningtheuniquesettingsandcharacters,retracingIrishhistory.Therefore,thisthesiswillexploretheIrishnessinthesethreeplaysfromtheangleofpostmodernism,combingwiththetextualreading,whichwillenrichtheresearchofBeckettiancritic,aswellasprovideanewdirectiontotheresearchonBeckett’sworks.Apartfromintroductionandconclusion,thestructureofthisthesisisasfollows.ChapterOne,throughthesettings,willexplainhowBecketttracesIrelandinhisworksandtowhatextentherelatethesesettingstotheplacesandlandscapeinIreland.ChapterTwoelaboratesonrepresentingtheIrishcharacterinparticularperiod.ThischapterwillanalyzethehowBeckettdisplaysIrishnessinhisplaysthroughthreeparts:thespiritualstate;thephysicalconditionandthelanguage.ChapterThreeexpoundstheIrishhistorywhichisrecurredintheseplaysandiii
analyzeshowBeckettshowshisfeelingstowardsIrelandbyrememberingIrishhistory.Keywords:Beckett;WaitingforGodot;Endgame;AllThatFall;setting;characters;Irishhistory;Irishnessiv
AcknowledgmentsFirstandforemost,Iwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetomysupervisor,ProfessorLiuAiying,bothforherintellectualguidanceandforherwarmandconstantencouragementduringtheprocessofwritingthisthesis.Withpatienceandprudence,shelaboredthroughdraftsofthisthesisandpointedoutdefectsinmytheorizing.Therefore,Ioweallthemeritsinthisthesis,ifany,toher,thoughIamfullyawarethatthethesismightstillcontainsomemistakes,forwhichIbearthewholeresponsibility.Iamalsoverygratefultomycolleague,PengWenwen,LiqixiuandHuangXiaomeiwhosecarefulandmicroscopicscrutinyofthemanuscriptresultedintheeliminationofmanyinconsistencies.Lastbutnottheleast,bigthanksgotomyfamilywhohavesharedwithmemyworries,frustrations,andhopefullymyultimatehappinessineventuallyfinishingthisthesis.iv
TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction……………………………......................…………………...................1I.SamuelBeckettandHisMiddlePeriodPlays...............................................1II.LiteratureReview..........................................................................................3III.TheoreticalConstructionandReconstructionofIrishness......................8ChapterOneTracingIrishnessintheSettingsofBeckett’sPlays………….......131.1.OutliningIrishSettinginthePlays…………………..............................131.2.DramatizingtheIrishLandscape……………………............................18ChapterTwoFaithfullyRepresentingIrishnessinCharacterization…..............222.1.TheSpirituallyPerplexedIrish.................................................................232.2.TheDisabledIrish...............………………..............................................272.3.TheDialect.........…......…………...............................................................30ChapterThreeHistoricizingIrishness…..……..……….......................................343.1.RememberingtheTraumaticNationalMemory...…………..................353.2.DramatizingtheMemoryoftheIrishNation........……………........….383.3.HistoricizingRelationshipsBetweenCharacters.....................................43Conclusion……………….………………...........................………….…................49WorksCited...…………..……....……………………………..................................51v
IntroductionI.SamuelBeckettandHisMiddlePeriodPlaysSamuelBeckett(1906-1989)wasanIrish-bornnovelist,poet,playwrightandalsotheoneoftheeminentdramatistofTheTheateroftheAbsurd.Heisaprolificplaywrightwhoseoeuvreshasbeentranslatedintoover20languages,andwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinLiteraturein1969.However,becauseofhisself-exiletoFranceduringhisadulthoodandhischangingtoFrenchwriting,criticsfinditrathercontroversialtodefineBeckett’sidentityandtheyhaven’treachedaconsensusnow.Throughouthislife,hiscareerasawritercanbedividedintothreeperiods:earlyperiod(1930s-WWII),middleperiod(afterWWII-1960s)andlateperiod(1960s-1989).Eachperiodhasdifferentfocusesandfeatures.Inhisearlyperiod,Beckettwrotemainlynovelswhichexplorethethemesofinsanityandblackhumorwiththestronginfluenceofotherwriters,especiallyJamesJoyce,who,tosomeextent,ishistutor.Inhismiddleperiod,BeckettturnedtodramawritingandwasregardedasaleaderoftheTheateroftheAbsurd,atypeoftheatrethatcomesoutofthehorrorofWorldWarII.HisoeuvresnotonlyconcernabouthumanconditionbutalsohelptobuildhisreputationoffamousplaywrightofAbsurdTheater.Thelateperiodworksexhibitedanincreasingtendency—alreadyevidentinmuchofhisworkofthe1950s—towardscompactnessandhasledtohisworksometimesbeingdescribedasminimalist.Itishismiddleperiodwork-WaitingforGodotthatleadhimwintheNobelPrizeforLiteraturein1969.Alongwithtwootherplays-EndgameandAllThatFall,BeckettshowushisIrishnessthoughhiswriting.InWaitingforGodot,Beckettusesthetramp-likecharactersanddesolatesurroundingtoshowushisconcernaboutIreland;inEndgame,BeckettmainlyelaboratethespiritualaspectoftheIrishrepresentedincharacters;inAllThatFall—aradioplay,Beckettfocuseson1
obviouslyIrishfeaturestoshowhisconcernaboutIreland.WaitingforGodot(1952),broughtBeckettaworldreputation,isatragicomedyintwoacts.InActI,thetramp-likederelictVladimirwaitingforsomeonenamedGodotinableak,desolateplace,accompaniedbyhiscompanionofmanyyearsnamedEstragonwhoisoverlyconcernedwithphysicalneeds.ThenamasternamedPozzoandhisservantLucywithropetetheringonhisneckcame.Theydon’tknowtheonecalledGodot,either.Aftertheirdeparture,themessengerboyenters,tellingVladimirandEstragonthatGodotwillnotcometodaybutsurelyGodotwillbetheretomorrow.Thentheboyleaves,leavesVladimirandEstragononthescenewaiting.InActII,nearlyarepetitionofActI,whosesequencesoftheorderofcharactersisthesame,GodotisstillnotcomingandVladimirandEstragonarestillwaiting.However,thedifferencesaretheropewhichboundPozzoandLuckyisshorter,andPozzoisblindandLuckyisdumb,andtheplaygivesnofurtherinformationtothischange.Endgame(1957)isanone-actplaywhichhappenedinaroomfacedthesea.TwomajorcharactersHammandClov,one(Hamm)sitsinthecentreofthestage,paralyzedandblind,theother(Clov)bowedandmisshapen.AndtwominorcharactersNaggandNellwhoareHamm’sparentsareincrediblyold,shriveledandfeeble,theybothlivedinashbins,sufferingamiserableexistence.Beingtheonlycharactercapableofmovingonstage,Clov,withatelecope,clamberstheladderandlooksthroughthewindowsofthebareandprison-likeroomunderthecommandofHammandthreatenstoleaveHammthroughouttheplay.Althoughmostoftheirconversationsarenonsense,theyneedthistokillthetime.AllThatFall(1957)isaplaywrittenforradio.MaddyRoody,anold,unwieldlyIrishwoman,takealaborioustriptotheBoghillRailwayStationonSaturdayatlunch-timetogivehisblindhusband,Dan,abirthdaysurpriseonhiswaybackfromhisoffice,andthentheyreturnhometogether.ThesettinginthethreeplaysareallrelatedtoIrelandbutindifferentperiod,2
besides,thecharactersandthehiddenhistoryarealltheimportantfeaturesthatcanhelptounderstandhowBeckettexpresshisIrishness.II.LiteratureReviewThecriticismandcommentaryofBeckett’sworkshaveballoonedintohundredsandthousandsofmonographs,andtheyarestillrising.Inall,Beckettcriticismhasmainlyaccruedinthreelanguages:English,FrenchandGerman(McDonald,117).TheEnglish-languagecriticismwasn’tstarteduntilthepublicationofhistrilogy,includingMolly,MoloneDiesandTheUnnamable.ThereasonwhyBecketthasarousedsomuchcriticalfascinationisprobablythathisworkcanbepersuadedtofitintoanynumberofmodelsorsystems.Hiscontextswhichseemdifficulttobetracedcouldbeinterpretedbymanytheoreticalmovementsoverseveraldecades.Furthermore,owingtoBeckett’sawardoftheNobelPrizeinLiteratureandtheriseofpostmodernism,theBeckettindustryexpandedandnocontemporarywriterhasarousedagreatervolumeofcriticalcommentinsoshortatime.Fromfewarticlesintheearly1950s,Beckettcriticismhasgrownprogressivelyeachyearandgraduallydevelopedintoanunprecedentedoccasionofinternationalization.ThespecialissueofPerspective(1959)editedbyCohnanddevotedtoBeckett’sworkswasconsideredasthestartingpointofacademicBeckettstudiesinEnglish.Fromthe1960sonwards,HughKenner’sSamuelBeckett:ACriticalStudy(1961)wasthefirstfull-lengthstudyofBeckettinwhichKennerreclaimedBeckettasaplaywrightinthefieldofexistentialismandemphasizedDescartesandphilosophicalaspectsinhisworks.Inthemeantime,KennerpointedoutthatBeckett’sdramaticstyleaimsatsubvertingthetraditionalforms.ThisfindingnotonlylaidthefoundationforthelaterresearchbutalsobecamethemodelofBeckettcriticismonexistentialism.MartinEsslinpublishedTheTheatreoftheAbsurdin1961whichgavethedefinitionofAbsurdTheater.Afterthat,the3
existentialperspectiveofBeckett’sworkhadbeenprovedfar-reachingandbecamethemostinfluentialcriticalmethod.FrederickJ.Hoffman’sSamuelBeckett:TheLanguageofSelfandRubyCohn’sSamuelBeckett:TheComicGamutin1962echoedtheexistentialperspective.Laterin1965,CohnandEsslinco-editedSamuelBeckett:ACollectionofCriticalEssays,inwhichCohnexploredtherelationshipbetweenBeckettandphilosophicalexistentialismusingtheconception“Becketttriplex”toexploreliterary,philosophicalandgeographicalallusionsinBeckett’sdramaticworks.ThoughphilosophicalresponsestoBeckett’sdramaticworksareoverwhelmingin1960s,InhisTheLiteratureofSilence:HenryMillerandSamuelBeckett(1967),IhabHassanturnedtothepostmodernismdemonstratedinBeckett’sworksandrelatedthestyleofBecketttopostmodernliteraryexperiment.Inthe1970s,thehistoricalbackgroundofBeckett’splaysandreader’sresponsesarousedcritics’interest,butphilosophicalresearchtowardshisplaysarestillthemainstreamasawhole.JohnFletcherinBeckett:AStudyofHisPlaysstressedthecharacteristicsinthediscourseintheplays.P.J.MurphyalsopreferredtointerpretBeckett’sdramaticwork’sintermsoftheresearchformatthatcombinesinterpret,performanceandtheaudience’sresponse.DavidHesla’sTheShapeofChaos:AnInterpretationoftheArtofSamuelBeckettexplorestheintellectualandphilosophicalbackground.BerylFletcher’sAStudent’sGuidetothePlaysofSamuelBeckett(1978)provideshelpfulcluestothehistoricalcontextspertinenttoBeckett’sdramas,andoffersinterestingdiscussionsoftheproblemsininterpretingBeckett’splays(Liu2).The1980switnessedtheliterarytheoryofstructuralism,post-structuralismandfeminismwithexistentialismwhichcriticsturnedtoin-depthanalyses.PeterGidal,inUnderstandingBeckett:AStudyofMonologueandGestureintheWorkofSamuelBeckett,analyzedthelanguageinBeckett’sworksinlightofpost-structuralismandfeminism.EugeneF.KaelinfurtherelaboratedthetragicattitudeofBeckettbasedontheanalysisofthemainphilosophicalsourcesinfluencedhiscompositioninThe4
UnhappyConsciousness:ThePoeticPlightofSamuelBeckettin1981.Inthe1990s,criticismgatheredmomentumfromnumeroustheoriesandapproachestoliterature.ThedebateaboutwhetherBeckettshouldbegroupedwiththemodernistsorthepostmodernistswasamajorconcernwhichisstillundefineduptonow.AnthonyCronininthebiographySamuelBeckett:TheLastModernist(1996)strengthenedBeckett’simageasamodernist,whileElizabethKlaver,inEnteringBeckett’sPostmodernSpace,claimedthatitisimpossibletoclearlydistinguishthemodernismwithpost-modernisminBeckett’sworkandproposedthatthelaterstageofBeckett’strilogyshouldbeseenasthebeginningofhisstartofhispost-modernism.MerleTönniesalsofocusesonBeckett’spostmodernity.Beckettcriticismalsowentfurtherandflourishedinsomedistinctivedomains:fromtheperspectiveofontology,LalitaRammakrishnaemphasizedtheexistenceofSelfinSamuelBeckett:TimeandtheSelfinHisPlays(1997).Besides,thediscoursesofbodybecameanewdirectioninexploringBeckett’sworks.SheilaRabillardconcentratedonthebodymattersinhisTheBodyinBeckett:DénégationandtheCritiqueofaDepoliticizedTheatrewhichwasacanonicalworkinthisfield.Inthe21stcentury,Beckettcriticismhasgeneratedvoluminousstudies,suchasDanielAlbright’sBeckettandAestheticswhichexploredBeckett’saestheticvaluesfromdifferentaspects.AmoreimportantissueisintherelationofBeckettandIreland,anareathathasarousecritics’attentionandbecameamajortopicofBeckettcriticism.Comparedtootherresearches,thoughanalyzingtherelationshipbetweenBeckettandIrelandstartedlate,earlyin1995,DeclanKiberdinhisInventingIreland:TheLiteratureoftheModernNationlaysclaimtoBeckettas“thefirsttrulyIrishplaywright,becausethefirstutterlyfreeoffactitiouselementsofIrishness”(McDonald123).In2010,inhis“reviewofMorin,Emilie:SamuelBeckettandtheproblemofIrishness”,JamesMcNaughtondebatedonBeckett’sIrishnessandthespecifichistoricalorpoliticalconcernsthathisworksarticulate,respondtoorerase,aswellasthepersistenceofIrishlocales,landscapesandspeechpatterns.5
S.E.Gontarski’sBeckettandIreland(2011)focusesontheIrishidentityandrechecksBeckettandIreland.Moreimportantly,attheinternationalconference:Beckettandthe‘State[s]’ofIreland(July12-14,2012,UniversityCollegeDublin),BeckettscholarsreevaluatedBeckett’svexedrelationshipwithIreland.Inhis“TracesHistoricized:BeckettTraced”(2012),MooneySusanexaminedBeckett’sworksandinthecloserelationtohisintellectualbiographyorexperience.Inaddition,AnnaMcMullanandTrishMcTighe’sSamuelBeckettandIrishScenography(2015)offersomeglimpseintotheparallelhistoriesofBeckettandIrishscenographyandexplorehowtheyimpacteachother(Anna141).ThoughtheyalsomakesomeprogressinanalysisofBeckettandIrish,theystilldidn’tcombinetheBeckett’sworksandhisspecialexperienceinexploringhisIrishnessrepresentedinhisworks,especiallyhismiddle-periodworks.DomesticcriticismofBeckett’sdramaswhichstartedfrom1960swiththepublicationofWaitingforGodottranslatedbyShiXianrong,isnotinorderandcanmainlybedividedinto4waves.From1960sonwards,becauseofhisreputation-representativeofAbsurdTheaterorAvant-garde,Beckettbegantobeknownineasternliterarycircles.Fromthe1980sonwards,criticsfocusonthehumanconditioninBeckett’sworks.Chinesecriticsmainlyfollowthewesterncriticalpatternstoanalyzetheworksfromtheperspectiveofexistentialismandabsurdity.Fromthe1990sonwards,theBeckettcriticisminChinarunsfaster,andarticleshavemultipliedundertheinfluenceofthesurgeofforeignliteraturetrends.Althoughabsurditywasstillamajorissue,criticsbegantoexploreBeckett’splaysfromotherperspectives,suchasstageeffects.In21stcentury,especiallyafterBeckett’scentennialbirthdayin2006,newapproachestoBeckett’sworksarising,andcriticsmovedforwardtostructuralism,post-structuralism.FromtheabovereviewofcriticismofBeckett’sworks,itisnodifficulttoseethatmostofthepreviousstudieshavenotdrawnacomprehensivepictureofBeckettandIreland,especiallytheIrishnessinhisworks.Althoughtherehadbeenclaims6
madeforBeckett’sIrishness,itissporadic.Bythemid1980s,especiallyfollowingBeckett’sdeath,anumberofmajorcriticalworksattemptedtoplacehisworkinrelationtoanessentiallyIrishasopposedtoEuropeantradition.FewcriticsdevotedthemselvestotheIrishnesswithinBeckett’smiddleperiodworkscomparedtootherperspectives.LiuXiuyu’s“ConstructionofBeckettandIrelandNationalCulture”focusedonexaminingBeckett’sIrishmemoryanditssubtlerepresentationinhisplaystoexplorethein-depthrelationbetweenBeckettandIrishculturesoastodiscovertheinternalmechanismofBeckett’snationalculturalaswellasitsaestheticinspiration(Liu87).It’sdifficulttoenvisageSamuelBeckett’sartisticdevelopmentwithoutconsideringhischangingrelationshipwithIreland.WhetherBeckett’sworksareinspiredbymemoriesofhiscountryofbirthdidn’tgetacertaindefinition.Harringtonnpointsout:Becketthassimplyfallenintothegapsbetweenrevisionistandpost-colonialreappraisalsofIrishmodernism:“ForIrishrevisionism,themantobeatisYeats,;forIrishrevivalism,themantobeatisJoyce.AtthepresentmomentinIrishculturalstudies,becausethosehotandcoldrhetoricsareinplace,andbecauseheputtheargumentintodefiniteform,themanisBeckett.(Morin6)”WhileBeckettcriticismintheworldisprosperousandwillstillbeongoing,theIrishnessinBeckett’sdramaticworksstillsneedtobeexplored,especiallyinhismiddleworks:WaitingforGodot,EndgameandAllThatFallinwhichtheIrishfeaturesarealittlebitclearthanothers.Therefore,adetailedstudyontheIrishnesswithinhismiddleworksthroughconstructionandreconstructionofIrishnesswouldbemeaningful.Firstly,thetopicaboutIrishnessinBeckett’splaysisn’twidelyexploredbycritics,soitisworthexploring.Second,thereisadisputeaboutBeckett’sidentity,andhewastendedtobeconsideredasacosmopolitan.Soit’s7
meaningfultosearchhisemotionstowardsIrelandinhisworks.Thus,thisthesisiscalculatedtogainanewinsighttoBeckett’sworkandincreasebothwideanddepthofBeckettscholarship.ThecrucialpointisthatthetraitsthatenabletheassimilationofBeckett’sworkintoIrishliterarycanon.III.TheTheoreticalConstructionandReconstructionofIrishnessIrishness,whichreferstotheIrishnationalidentity,isaninfamouslydifficulttermtodefineduetothemultifarioushistorywhichhasshapeditandconstructingindividualsandpoliticalforceswhohaveclaimedownershipofit.Nationalidentityisakeyconceptinpost-colonialism.Asisknowntoall,Englandwasa“thesunneversettingempire”whohadconqueredmanycolonies.Alongwithitsdecline,thesenseofnationalismbecameincreasinglyprominentinthecoloniesbecauseoftheexpansionofcapitalismandtherapiddevelopmentofindustrialization.Inthatcase,Irelandbegantosearchforitsnationalidentityinitsnationalistmovements.“Nationalismisgenerallyusedtorefertoasenseofcommunalidentitythatincludesasharedhistory,culture,andbeliefsystem,andoftenaparticularlanguage,aswellasaconcernforthecollectivegoodandsometimesclaimstoaparticularterritory”(Wright939-963).Inthemeanwhile,nationalismalsoreferstothedefensiveideologyoftheoppressedpeopletosubverttheruleoftheBritishEmpire.InthecaseofIreland,withalltheupsanddowns,thecourseoftheIrishnationalistmovementneverended.Atthesametime,theIrishhavetriedveryhardtosearchfortheirIrishnationalidentity.Irelandisanationofancienthistoryandculture.TheCeltswhoweretheearliestinhabitantsruledthisterritory.Byabout300BC,itemsofthecontinentalCelticLaTènestylebeingfoundinatleastthenorthernpartoftheislandwiththegradualinfiltrationofCeltic-speakingpeopleintoIreland.Alongwiththegradual8
blendingofCelticandindigenouscultures,asaresult,theGaeliccultureemerged.Inthe8thcentury,theGaelic,law,religionandculturewereinfullbloominIreland.ThoughintheMiddleAges,theVikingsonceinvaded,fortunately,theydidn’tsucceed,andthisterritorywasstillunderthechargeofCelts.However,thissituationwasinterruptedbytheinvasionoftheNormansinthe12thcentury,andIrishcivilizationwasprofoundlychanged.WithoutgripingtheIrishgovernment,theNormanwasrevoltedbyIrishbyvariousmethods.Andattheendof15thcentury,theterritoryruledbyEnglandonlylefttheareaaroundPale.ThingschangedwhentheTutorDynastyre-conqueredIrelandinthe16thcentury,andlarge-scaleEnglishcivilizationswarmedintoIreland.Asaresult,theCelticcivilizationwasonthewane:thepoliticsofIrelandhadbeendominatedbyBritain;GaelicwasontheedgeofextinctionbecauseofthewideuseofEnglish,aswellasthecatastrophicimpactoftheGreatHunger;CatholicisminwhichnearlyalltheCeltsbelievedhadbeensuppressedbyProtestantEnglish.Thereafter,underthecontrolofsuppressofBritish,theIrishwereoftenre-presentedas‘savage’and‘barbarous’asfarbackasthetravelsofFynesMorysonandhisitineraryof1617(Massoudi1492).Inaword,theintentionofBritishisthattheywanttoboastthesuperiorityoftheircultureandethnocentrismandthusgivethemsolidlegalandmoralexcusestoruleIreland.Tosomeextent,theysucceed.ThatiswhyWatsoncriticizedthatIrishpeoplehad“…anawarenessofthedenigratoryimages,couldonlyproduceintheIrishmindthedeepfeelingsofinferiority,whetherconsciousorunconscious”(Watson18).Ingeneral,therefore,5gtIrishnessisanindicationofhowitissubjecttoacritiqueintendedtocomplicateandpluralizeanysingularnotionofcultural,racial,andnationalidentity.“Intheory,twokindsoffreedomwereavailablefortheIrish:thereturntoapast,pre-colonialGaelicidentity,stillyearningforexpressioniflong-denied,orthereconstructionofanationalidentity,beginningfromfirstprinciplesalloveragain”(Kiberd286).Thefirsteventuallytooktheformof9
nationalism,assponsoredbyMichaelCollins,EamondeValeraandthePoliticalelites;thesecondofferedliberation,andwaslargelytheinventionofwritersandartists(Kiberd286).Astimewentby,Irishnessgraduallyhasdevelopedawidemeaningwhichisnotconfinedtotheboth.Inthepast,colonialandnationalistreadingsofIrishnesshaverootedsocial,politicalandculturalidentitieswithinrepresentationsofthelandscapeoftheWestofIreland,whicharticulatedradicalizedvisionsofIrishnessas“darkandprimitive”orfollowingindependence“pureandunspoilt”.Andnow,Irishnesshasawidemeaningwhichincludesalmostalltheaspectsthatinfluencepeople’smentalandspiritualemotion.TheargumentthatIrelandwasdarkandprimitivewasonabasisthattheimaginedIrelandwasafalseIreland.Farfromabeautiful,glorioussociety,Irelandwas,atthattime,themostundevelopedcountryinEurope.ThemassesinIrelandlivedinindigence,andtheirsituationwasevenworseaftertheGreatHungerandwars.Fromthesettingthesethreeworks,Wecanseethatundertheinfluenceofthewar,thelivingconditionandphysicalconditionisworse,aswellastheirspiritual.ThelongperiodofstrugglingagainstBritainforcedpeopletorethinkthedefinitionofIrishness-theIrishnationalidentity.Astimewentby,thedenotationofIrishnesswasenlarged.Post-nationalistreformationsandreconfigurationsofIrishnesshavestresseditsheterogeneousandmulti-locationalorigins,andhavemadeclaimsaboutthe‘openingup’ofplaceinIrelandtowiderEuropeanspaces.Thepost-colonialisttheorieshaveenlightenedustoreconsidertherelationshipbetweenthecolonialpowerandthecolonythroughthestudyofintertwinedhistories.TherelationshipbetweentheSelfandtheOtherinpost-colonialismtheorycontributedanewthoughtabouttheIrishness.Hegelclaimedthatthedevelopmentofself-consciousnessmustdependontheotherself-consciousness,sothetwocouldcombineintotheMaster/Slavedialectics.InOrientalism,EdwardSaidsaidthattheconstructionofidentity,whichisobviouslyarepositoryofdistinctcollectiveexperiences,isfinallyaconstructioninvolvingestablishingoppositesand“others”10
whoseactualityisalwayssubjecttothecontinuousinterpretationandre-interpretationoftheirdifferencesfrom“us”(Said332).Lacaninhisessay,“theSubversionoftheSubjectandtheDialecticofDesireintheFreudianUnconsciousness”,emphasizestheclaimthatthesubject’sformdependsontheOtherandthepowerofdeterminationisnotfromtheinsidebuttheoutside.Lacan’sdiscussingabouttheSelfandtheOtherrelationshipcouldbetakenasamodelfortheIrelandandEnglandrelationship.OwingtothefactthatBeckettexperiencedeventslikewarandliterarymovement,theoutsidefactorsthathadagreatinfluenceonhimmattered.Tothinkers,theindividualwasanincompleteandinsufficientconstitution,whowouldalwaysdependontheparticipationoftheOtherforenrichingandinvigoratinghisselfhood.Inotherwords,withthehelpoftheOther,wecouldcompletetheunderstandingofwhoweare–ourself,ouridentityandourindividuality.WiththisnewdimensionofOthernessthinkersposedachallengetotheconventionalphysiologicalandpsychologicaluniquenessoftheindividual.TheyestablishedadialecticalrelationshipbetweentheSelfandtheOther.Throughanon-goingexchange,dialogue,andinteractionbetweentheSelfandtheOther,humanbeingscouldachieveanewselfandidentity.AlthoughtheIrishclaimofIrishnesswasabsolutelyincompatiblewithEnglishness,thenewdimensionofOthernesstransformedtherelationshipofIrelandandEnglandintointersubjectivitybyrevealingtheconnection,communicationandinteractionbetweenIrelandandEngland.Thepost-colonialiststudy—EdwardSaid’sCultureandImperialismhassuccessfulre-interpretedthoseclassicliteraryworks.Generally，theIrishnessofSamuelBeckett’swritinghasbeenwidelydebated.Forexample,VivianMercierstatesthat“Beckett'srelationtotheGaelictraditionistangentialindeed”andlateraddsthathisuseofIrishreferencesisslight.SighleKennedy,however,hasmadeaconvincingcaseforBeckett’sknowledgeoftraditionalmaterialsbutdoesnotshowhowthetheoreticalinterestcarriedoverinto11
hisfictionandplays(Power151).Therefore,thisthesis,fromtheperspectiveofIreishness,willexplorehowBeckettexpresseshisfellingtowardsIrelandthroughhiswritingbyusingtextualreading.Allinall,whatIamgoingtodemonstrateinthispaperisthatinWaitingforGodot,EndgameandAllThatFall,BeckettcommandsawiderangeofIrishsourcesandusesthemwithgreatelaborationandintricacy.Moreimportantly,thisanglewillprovideanewdirectiontoBeckettcriticism.12
ChapterOneTracingIrishnessinSettingsItisgenerallyacknowledgedthatthesettinginBeckett’sworksismoreobscurethanthatinotherplays.However,therearestillsomehintsthatreferstoIreland,suchasthelandscape.ThoughBeckettlivedinFrance,wroteinFrenchandwasconsideredmoreasacosmopolitan,healsokeptaneyeontheAbbeyplaysandkepthimselfinformedofnewplaysinDublin.JustlikeJamesKnowlsonintheprefaceofBeckettCountrylavishlyillustrated“thoughheleftinthe“thirties”,IrelandispresentinBeckett’sworknotonlyinlocalizedsettingsofearlyworksorinthe‘oldscenes’revisitedofthemostrecentplays”(Saunders5).InCultureandImperialism,EdwardSaidnotesthatimperialismis“Everythingabouthumanhistoryisrootedintheearth,whichhasmeantthatwemustthinkabouthabitation”(7).MostofBeckett’splaysaresettledindessert-likeplacesinwhichthedistinguishedIrishcultureandcommonmemoryarecovered.AlthoughBeckett’sresistanceto‘local’substanceandaccident,theIrishveininhisworkrunsdeep,evenwhenitisnotvisibleonthesurface.BeckettrepresentsIrishnessbyusingthespecificplaceswhichreflectstheIrishpeople’ssituation.1.1.OutliningIrishSettinginthePlaysIrelandhasalonghistoryofliteratureandtheatreinwhichitsculturalidentitywaspresented.Tosomeextent,historyenterstheliterarywork.Beckett’schildhoodandteenageyearssawtheriseofmilitantIrishnationalismandthesubsequentWarofIndependenceandCivilWar.Moreimportantly,helivedinanerainwhichwarsarefrequentlyhappened.Thus,alltheseexperiencesurelycreepintoareceptivemindonsomelevel.Therefore,itisdifficulttoenvisageSamuelBeckett’sartisticdevelopmentwithoutconsideringhischangingrelationshipwithIreland,thoughhe13
himselfseemstofadehistieswithhiscountryofbirthbysettlinginFranceandwritinginFrench.Beckett’sworksaremoreobscureinunderstandingsincethereisnoclearevidencereferredtoaspecificfeatures,buttheIrishveincanalsobefounded.OneofthedivisionsofBeckett’swritingcareeristhatplayscreatedfromabouttheendofWWIIto1960s,duringwhichBeckettbegantocompositeinFrench,areinclinedtoconsideredashismiddleworks.Fromthenon,hisFrenchandEnglishwritings,eveninlaterlife,remainedhauntedbyDublintrivia,IrishplacenamesandparticularepisodesofIrishhistory,althoughtheyarelittlemorethantraces,nonethelessrevealstheextentofBeckett’sintimateconflictwiththeirdistinctiveness.Asisknowntoall,Irelandisanislandcountrywithwideexpansesofland.However,owingtothelowproductivityandtechnology,Irelandisimpoverishedincontrasttoothercountries,especiallyBritishwhoisthesunneversetsempire.Moreimportantly,inhistory,thesituationofIrelandwasworseafterthewarsandnaturaldiseases,andmostofitsplacearedeserted.HavingexperiencedFamine,IndependenceWarandotherwarsanddiseases,thepopulationsharplydeclined,andthelivingconditionloweredalot,andmostoftheareasaredesertedandarid.Ireland,inparticular,withitsruggedlandscapesandenduringGaeliclanguage,becametherepresentationof“authenticIreland”.BeckettrepresentsIrishnessbudirectlydepictingthenaturalgeographicscene.InhisWaitingforGodot,BeckettmirrorsrealityofIrelandastherepresentationofIrishness—arid,simpleanddeserted.Inhisreconstruction,theplacewherethestoryhappenswasrepresentedassymbolcontainingthesoulofIrelandinwhichpeoplelivedinamiserablelife.ItalsostandsforthehelplesssituationagainsttheoppressedBritishregime.AstheimpoverishedsituationthatpreservescommonmemoryoftheIrish,thedesertedIrelandisreconstructedasrealitythatresonatestheIrishtogetherasawhole.TodescribetherealityaftersufferedthedevastationofEnglishcolonizersandthehorrorofFamine,reclaimingandinvokingthe14
predicamentofIrishisofprimeimportance.ThedesertedIrelandherecanbethecountrysidesceneryinthethreeplays.ItisthenaturalgeographicalspacethatstrengthensBeckett’sIrishnessthroughhisreconstruction.HeconjuresupplaceofIrishcountrysideanddepictsitsdesolation,whichrunsthroughmostofhisworks.WhileBeckett’stextsoftenenableindisputableconnectionstobemadewithanIrishsetting,findingcoherencewithinthisaspectofhisworkisfarmorechallenging.SufferingfromGreatFamineandwars,Irelandbecameaplacewhichstretchesformiresinasparselypopulatedplace.InWaitingforGodot,wecanseenothingbuttwoelderlytrampsnearamoundandatreenearlyweatheredinabarecountryroadlistlessly.Thetwotramps,DidiandGogo,areinragsandtatters,whichistherealreflectionoftheIrishpeopleaftertheysufferedalot.TheirlivingconditionisaminiatureoftheIrishpeople,thatis,thereisnowhereforthemtoshelter.Furthermore,theyonlyhavesometurnips,carrotsandradishestoeat,incontrasttothelord-likeimage,Pozzo,whonotonlyhasaslave—Lucky,butalsoprocessesabundantfood,suchaschickenandwine.InEndgame,outsidetheroom,thereisonlydevastation,withnosingoflife.Theirfoodreservesarenearlyexhausted,insteadofgivingNaggthepapwhatheeagerlywanted,Clovfetchedbiscuitfromkitchentohim.TheblindHammdependsonClov’ssight;sinceheisparalyzed,hecouldnotsurviveifClovwerenottheretofeedhim;sinceClovdoesnotknowthecombinationofthecupboardwherefoodiskept,hewoulddieofhungerwithouthismaster.Besides,theindoorssituationinthehousetheylivedislikethatinreality.IrelandwasonceinasituationthatlackedoffoodsupplyandtheIrishpeoplelivedinabadenvironment.InAllThatFall,thecountryroadtowardsthestationfilledwithruralsounds.Ontheirwayhome,theywanttoasksomeoneforthings,but“Allisstill.Nolivingsoulinsight(Cheng562)”.Also,theywanttositdownsomewhereforarest,still“Thereisnobench....Thereisnobank(563)’’.MrRooneyhasajob,they,however,stillhavetohaggleovereveryounce.Thisravagedandblastedlandscaperesemblesapost-apocalypticscenewhich15
promptssomecommentatorstospeculateonwhethersomeofanxietiesoftheColdWar,withthethreatofnuclearextinction,canbefeltinBeckett’splay.Infact,BeckettusesthedesolatesituationofIrelandandIrishscenographicplaceswhicharecrucialsignsinhisplaystoexpresshisconcernsonIrelandandthinkingofIrishness.Inconjunctionwiththedesolatescenes,anotherrepresentationofIrelandistheportrayalofcharacters’physicalcondition.Almostallthecharactersinthesethreeplaysareenduringtheirpoorphysicalcondition.InWaitingforGodot,Vladimirhassometypeofpainfulurinaryinfectionwhichcauseshimtosuffer,Estragonhassorefeetwhichhurthim,PozzosuffershisblindlessandLuckyisdumb.InEndgame,allofthecharacterssuffer,toagreaterorlesserdegree,somephysicaldeterioration.HammwhoisblindandparalyzedhastorelyonClovtohelphimwithalmosteverything.ClovwhocanseebuthiseyesarebadhastolivewithHamm’ssustenancebecausehedoesn’tknowthecombinationofthecupboard.Hamm’sparents,NaggandNell,havelongagolosttheirlegsinanaccidentonatandembicycleandliveintheashbins.InAllThatFall,MrsRooneyisfatandhasdifficultyingettingaboutandherhusband,DanwhoisblindneedsaboycalledJerrytoleadhimforward.MrTyler’sdaughterhashadahysterectomy,whichbreakshisfamily’scycleofregeneration.Asfortheirmentalstate,afterpullingthroughthesuccessionaldisasters,thoughtheirlifemaybebetter,theyliveameaninglesslife.WhatVladimirandEstragoniswaitingisthatOneUnknownnamedGodotwhotheydidn’tmeetbeforeanddidn’tknowwhetherhewillcomeornotyetbutfromwhomillusorymessagesflow.Inotherwords,theydon’tknowthesignificanceofwaitingtherebutjustwaitforhim.TheiractionandconversationduringwaitingforGodotisawayofpassingthetime,ofgivingcontenttothetimethatisthehollowsubstanceofalllife.Vladimirsuggestedthat“wecoulddoourexercises.”“Ourmovements.”saidEstragon.AndPozzoandLucy’sfranticrunningandsearchingarenomoreimportantthanVladimirandEstragon’ssittingandwaiting.Likewise,theopeningwordsofEndgame:16
“Finished,it’sfinished...”demonstratedthecharacters’helpless.Confinedinasparseroom,theyknowsnothingabouttheworld,evenaboutthetimeandlivedinavoidlifebyattemptingtohaveconversationsineffectuality.Clovburstsoutfromtimetotime,“Ihavethingstodo,”todointhatkitchenwherenothingiscooking,wherehelooksatthewall.NAGG:Kissme.NELL:Wecan’t.[Theirheadsstraintowardseachother,failtomeet,fallapartagain.]Besides,theyareinjuredandtheirdailyroutineistoopenthelidandbeforcedbackintoitwithoutdoinganythingmore.ThoughlifeseemstobebetterinAllThatFallthaninWaitingforGodotandEndgame,thementalstateofcharacterisnodifferent.Tosomeextent,Mr.Rooneyisreluctanttoworkbutforsupportingtheirfamily.“Nevertreadthesecursedstepsagain.Trudgethishellishroadforthelasttime.Sitathomeontheremnantsofmybottomcountingthehours—tillthenestmeal.[pause]theverythoughtputslifeinme(Cheng559)”.MrsRooneywouldlieinthebedinhospital,ifitwerenotforgivingherhusband,Dan,abirthdaysurprise.“Inspiteofallitisablessedthingtobealiveinsuchweather,andoutofhospital(540)”.Intheirwayhome,insteadofmakingameaningfulcommunication,DanaskMaddytocountthestepsforhim.Whatatediouslifeitwas.What’smore,thiskindoflifemaydrivehimcrazy.“Didyoueverwishtokillchild?[Pause]Nipsomeyoungdoominthebud.[Pause]Manyatimeatnight,inwinter,andontheblackroadhome,Inearlyattackedtheboy.[Pause]PoorJerry!(Cheng561)”Irelandwasaruralperiphery,itreliesonBritishinalmosteveryaspect.theBritishsuppressionandnaturaldisasterarethereasonsleadtoitspoorsituation.Thesettingsinliteraryworksarethereflectionofreality,justlikethesayinggoes“Literaturecomesfromlifeandabovelife”.Beckettdescribesthedesolatescene,the17
poorhealthconditionandspiritualstatetorevealthemiserablelifethattheIrishlived.HisexposureofthecurrentstatethenalsocontainshisattentionontheIrishpeople.1.2.DramatizingtheIrishlandscapeThoughhedidn’tliveinIrelandinhisadulthood,hisconcernaboutIrelandcouldbefathomed.AccordingtoSaid,selfexileissignificantinthat“Theexilethereforeexistsinamedianstate,neithercompletelyatonewiththenewsettingnorfullydisencumberedoftheold,besetwithhalf-involvementsandhalf-detachments,nostalgicandsentimentalononelevel,anadeptmimicorasecretoutcastonanother(Said49)”.Iftheworldisunknowable,itmatterslittlewhetheritisIrishornot.Beckett’sIrishworld,however,cananddoescontinuetobeasourceofmaterialforgamesofthemind.ThoughBeckettchosetoliveinParis,hewouldneverforgettheIrishworldofhischildhood,youthandearlyadulthoodduringwhichhewastraumatizedbysightsofcruelty,whichhaunthimforyearsafterwards.Itsurfacesagainandagaininmostofhisworksaswell,bothinfictionandindrama.ToDuncan,acultural,oriconic,aparticulargeographicspaceisacollageencapsulatingapeople’simageofitself.Itembodiesthetraitofterritoryandasharedpastwhichhelpstodefinecommunalidentity,andplaysadynamicroleinthereproductionandtransformationofanysociety.SofarasBeckett’splaysareconcerned,geographicfeaturesarethosewhichcouldhelptoexpresshisinneremotionsandleaveushintsabouthisidea.Thebarestagesandstarkimages,theseeminginvestmentinelementandunmediatedconditionsofexperience,reinforcetheimpressionofawriterinquarantinefromhishistoricalmoments.History—thatwhichweselectfromthepast—isusedeverywheretoshapethesesymbolicidentities.18
ThesettingofableakbackgroundwhichreflectstherealIrelandinthattimemirrorstheIrishhistory.Asisknowntous,thestoryinWaitingforGodothappensinadesertedplacewhichseemstohavenothingtodowithIreland.However,afterreadingdeeply,wemaymarvelatwhataneminentplaywrightBeckettis.Hedidn’texpresshisconcernaboutIrelanddirectlybutusedetailstoilluminateit.TheplotinWaitingforGodotexposesthehistoriceventssuchasGreatHungerwhichbroughtdisastrousinfluencetotheIrish.Afterthisnaturaldisaster,alongwiththewaragainstEngland,Irelandwasaplacewherepeoplelivedinsuffer.Thebarestageechoesthehistory,inotherwords,throughdramatizingthehistoriceventsinhisplays,BeckettshowshisIrishness.InEndgame,thenameClovwhichissimilarto“Kov”-athoroughglossonthenamecouldhelpusdiscloseBeckett’sspacialimaginationatacertainlevel.BasedontheconcernoftheNationalGeographySociety,mostofthecriticsguessedthatthereiscurrentlynotownofthisnameintheworld.ItseemedthatBeckettwouldhaveinventedalocation,thoughadmittedlyonethatsoundslikeitmightwellbesituatednearthesteppe.Ontheotherhand,thismaybeanextremespecimenofself-reflectivity.Acoveisratherlikeadiminutivegulf,andthe“place”Kovmayhavebeengeneratedbyastrictlyverbalmanipulation.Finally,wemaynotethat“Kov”isthestandardpronunciationofCóbh,amajorIrishportthattheoccupyingEnglishrenamed“Queenstown”in1849.Duringaliveperformance,anyspectatorfamiliarwiththeportwouldnaturallyassumethatitwastheplacebeingreferredto(Richardson71).Besides,thehousetheystayedatisanepitomeofIrelandwhichalsofacestosea,justlikethelocationofIrelandwhichfacesthesea.AllThatFallwhosesequencealsorevealsBeckett’sconcernforIrelandwascomposedin1957notlongbeforetheoutbreakofcivilwar.Ontheonehand,issetnotamongallegoricaldustbinsbutinarecognizablethoughstylizedandindeedcariculatedruralIrelandofperhapsthirtyorfortyyearsago.Ontheotherhand,itissetinacaricaturedIrishvillagecalledBoghill,clearlyinspiredbyBeckett’s19
childhoodmemoriesofFoxrock,asouthernsuburbofDublin.TherailwaystationadjoinsaracecoursesuggestingthestationservingBeckett’snativeFoxrockandthenearbyLeopardstowntrack.Beckett’sbelatedreturntoIrish-Englishonlysixyearsafterhismother’sdeathcouldbetentativelyseenasanactofidentificationwiththeunnamedanonymous“Poorwoman.Allaloneinthatruinousoldhouse”,wholistensto“DeathandtheMaiden”,“Alldaythesameoldrecord.Allaloneinthatgreatemptyhouse”,adisplacedimageperhapsofMay,Beckett'srenowneddepressivecharacter.StevenConnor'sremarkthat“allhomelandsaremoreorlessviolenthallucinations,anditisperhapsinthissensethatBecketisthemostIrishofwriters”(Cheng88)couldnotbemoreappropriatewhenconsideringBeckett'shauntingre-animationofhomeinAllThatFall.Despiteitsunprepossessingname,thesettingofBoghillbearsarecognizablerelationshiptoFoxrock,thecommunityincountyDublin,Ireland,whereBeckettgrewup.Thisrelationshipistosomedegreestrengthenedbytheproximityofaracecourseintheplay.FoxrockisquiteclosetothepremierracingvenueofLeopardstown.AlthoughcommentatorshavestronglydiscouragedneatandexclusiveidentificationsofBeckettcharacterswithreal-lifecounterparts,Beckett’sfatherdidcommutetothecitybytrain.Protestantismloomslargeinanumberofthecharacters’existences,includingtheRooneys’,andBeckett’sbackgroundwasProtestant.Atthesametime,however,theplaysubvertstheseostensiblyreliableandessentiallycommonplaceelements.ThenameofBoghillisanoxymoron.Twotypesofterrainarecontainedinit,eachofwhich,initsowndistinctandoppositeway,makesforwardmovementdifficult.WhilethenamemayindeedconveyIrishresonances,itsevocativerelationshiptotheRooneys’progressseemsmoretotheimaginativepoint.ThisrelationshipmaybefurtherappreciatedbyconsideringthefamiliarIrishnameRooney,withitsechoesof“ruin,”whichiscommonlypronouncedinIrelandas“rune.”ThesecondsyllableoftheRooneynameactsasa20
diminutiveofthoseechoes,mufflingthemanddiminishingthemlesttheyprovidetoofacileaninterpretativeopening.It’sclearfromBeckett’spublishedwritingsthathewaseagertomaintainadistancefromhiscountryofbirth,anditremainsdifficulttounderstandhisrelationshipwithIrelandintermsotherthanestrangementandwithdrawal.Thoughheisreluctanttoreturntohishometown,healsodepictsthephysicalrealityofIrelandinlandscapeinmostofhisworks，whichbreedsakindofruralnostalgia.Whelandepictstheruralasthe“beareroftheauthentic,quintessentialIrishidentity,encodedinalandscapedifferenttotheindustrialised,modernisedlandscapesofcontemporaryBritain(Graham68)”.21
ChapterTwoFaithfullyRepresentingIrishnessinCharacterizationBeckettnotonlyrepresentingIrishnessthroughdepictingthesetting,butalsopopulatesitwithuniquefigures.Influencedbythesocialbackgroundandthesequencingwars,togetherwithhisownexperience,heconstructscharactersandidentitiesfrombothmentalandspiritualaspects,aswellasthelanguage.SamuelBeckettwasborninanaffluentvillageofFoxrock,eightmilesfromDublin.BeingapartoftheIrishProtestantminorityinamainlyCatholiccommunity,Beckettmusthavefeltisolated,whichmayaccountforwhyBeckettdescribesthethemesofestrangement,loneliness,solitudeandseparationinhisoeuvreandwhyhischaractersmoreorlesshavesomeconfusesaboutreligion.VivianMercier,anIrishcriticofBeckett’soutput,commentedonthesimilaritybetweenthesituationofhisownandthatofBeckett:ThetypicalAnglo-Irishboy…learnsthatheisnotquiteIrishalmostbeforehecantalk;laterhelearnsthatheisfarfrombeingEnglisheither.ThepressureonhimtobecomeeitherwhollyEnglishorwhollyIrishcanerasesegmentsofhisindividualityforgoodandall.“WhoamI”isthequestionthateveryAnglo-Irishmanmustanswer,evenifittakeshimalifetimeasitdidYeats(MacDonald26).BeckettspentseveralquitelengthyperiodsinDublinbeforehispermanentrelocationtoParisin1937,tosomescholars,thisexperienceisofgreatimportancetoBeckett’sliteraryformation,aswellashisIrishness.AsMcphersonexplainedininterview,“theEnglishthatBeckettwroteisfullofIrishisms,fullofIrishinflections”(Saunders13).22
Inhistory,IrelandwasgovernedbyBritishUntiltheendof19thcenturyduringwhichtheIrishpeoplecouldn’tdoanythingtochangethissituationandtheirlanguagewasanglicizedthroughintegrationpolicy.BeckettasawritermanagedtoportraythesituationthatIrishpeopleencounteredandreconstructIrishnessbydepictingtheauthenticcharacterizationoftheIrishwhoarespiritualperplexedandaredisabledtofightagainst,aswellasthedialect.2.1.TheSpirituallyPerplexedIrishReligionplaysanimportantroleinwesterncountriesinpoliticoppression,aswellasplaywrights’works.WiththecomingoftheChristianityin1thAD,thebeliefinGodisoneofthedispensablepartsofwesterners’life,theybelievethatGodlovesthem,protectsthemandalsosendshissontorelievetheirsins.Adaptedtothedifferentregimes,Christianityhasdevelopedintoseveralgroups.InordertostrengthenthecontrolofIreland,BritaincarriedoutthereligiousrevolutionwhichirritatedthefightoftheIrish.PeopleunderthesuppressionwerespirituallyperplexedbecausetheGodtheybelievedincannotgivethemanyhelp.Asisknowntous,BeckettwasborninaProtestantfamily,whichhasagreatinfluenceonhiswriting.BeckettoncetoldTomDriverin1961thathehadnoreligiousfeeling:“OnceIhadareligiousemotion.Itwasatmyfirstcommunion.Nomore.(Uhlmann324)”However,hisfeelingaboutreligiondidn’tprecludehisintenseinterestinit.HisclosereadingsoftheBiblereflectalastingfascinationwiththeparadoxesoffaith.Later,religiousthemeinBeckett’sworkswhichhasattractedtheattentionoftheresearcherscouldhelpusunderstandtheIrishnessbeyondthispreface.AsSunsaidthat,“Religiouseducationhereceivedinfamilyandinchurchwhenhewasinhisteenshasproducedprofoundinfluencesonhisliterarycreation.Originalsin,salvation,secondcomingofJesusandotherthemesinHolyBiblehavebeenringinginhisworks(Sun296).”23
MercierregardsBeckett’sculturalidentitycrisisasthatofasouthernIrishProtestantwithinCatholicIrishsociety,whichisnotquitethesamethingasanindividualexistentialcrisisintheSartreansense.Broadlyspeaking,Sartrepointstotheindividual’srupturefromsocietyasaself-givenrealityandfocusesontheproblemoftheindividual’sunconditionalthreatofnothingnessoralienation.Religiousdifference,itwasfelt,wasthegreatesthindrancetoIrishnationalunity,sothelesssaidaboutitthebetter:aculturalIrishnesscouldbeformulatedthatcouldtranscendthereligiousimpediment.WhilesouthernIrishProtestantsasagroupcontinuallyfacedthethreatofnon-identitywithinanaliencountry;nonetheless,theirthreatwasoneofagroupexperience.ThoughBeckettisreluctanttoacclaimhisrelationshipwithIreland,wecanstillfindsometracesinshowinghisconcernabouttheIrish.ItisundoubtedlytruethatmostofBeckett’splaysmakereferencestoordirectlyquotetheBible.WaitingforGodotisanupdatedtwentieth-centurymythwhichdepictsaworldwheresufferingappearsarbitraryandmeaninglessandwhichis‘governedbynootherdivinitythanasortofmalignantfate’(Fletcher).WhileintheBible,thestoryofTheGardenofEdenexplainswhysufferingexistsandhintspropheticallyatitsspiritualmeaning.ThebaretreeinWaitingforGodotistheTreeofKnowledgeofGoodandEvil.Alike,inEndgame,anironyreversalofanotherbiblicalaccount—thecreationoftheworldcanbefind.InCharlesLyons’provocativeessay“Beckett’sEndgame:AnAnti-MythofCreation”,heregardsafascinatingandcoherentreadingoftheplayasadepictionofthedisintegrationoftheuniverseasperceivedbyadyingconsciousness.Godcreatedtheworldbyseparatingtheearthfromthewatersandbycreatinglight.Onthecontrary,Beckettshowsusauniversewheretheearthandwaters,asperceivedbyClovfromthetwowindowsoftheirshelter,cometogenerallyresembleeachothermoreandmore,astheyarereducedto“gray”and“zero”;wherepeoplelikeMotherPeggdiesforlackinglight.24
Byusingtheironyofthebiblicalstory,BeckettilluminatestheperplexedspiritualstateoftheIrishpeoplewhohavealienedwithGodforalongtime,theyhavelostthereligiousheritageandwalkedonthespiritualwasteland.InWaitingforGodot,whenVladimirandEstragontalkedaboutwhetheroneofthetwothethieveswassaved,Vladimir:Andyet...(pause)...howisit-thisisnotboringyouIhopehowisitthatofthefourEvangelistsonlyonespeaksofathiefbeingsaved.Thefourofthewerethere-orthereabouts-andonlyonespeaksofathiefbeingsaved,(pause)Comeon,Gogo,returntheball,can’tyou,onceinawhile?Estragon:[withexaggeratedenthusiasm.]Ifindthisreallymostextraordinarilyinteresting.Vladimir:Oneoutoffour.Oftheotherthree,twodon’tmentionanythievesatallandthethirdsaysthatbothofthemabusedhim.Estragon:Who?Vladimir:What?Estragon:What’sallthisabout?Abusedwho?Vladimir:Thesaviour.Vladimir:Becausehewouldn’tsavethem.(Beckett20)FromthisexceptwecanseethattheBiblewhichisregardedasthetheirspiritualpillarwasquestioned.IfinBibletheycouldn’tfindwhetherthethiefwassaved,Godwouldbequestioned.About‘who’Estragonasked,itdidn’tmeanhedidn’thearitclearly,buttheuncertaintyofthesaviour.TheyareconfusedaboutGod.Similarly,inEndgame,whenHammwhistlesforClovwhoexclaimedthathehasfoundaratinthekitchen,Hammsaysthatcanwait,forthemoment,theymustallpraytoGod.Thenallthemembers,atHamm’scommand,triedtopraywithoutsuccessafterseveralfutileattempts.“Thebastard.”criesHamm,“Hedoesn’texist.”Whereupon,Clovadds,“Notyet.”ThisambivalentrepresentationofGodfilledtheirmindandshowsthattheyarenotpioustoGod,letalonetopraysuccessfully.Theirunsuccessfulefforts,tosomeextent,alsodemonstratedtheirconfuseSaboutthereligion.Religionenjoysalonghistoryinwesterncountries.Whatevertheyencountered,25
theywouldliketoprayandwanttobesavedbyGod.Therefore,originalsinandbeensavedorrepentarethetwoimportantthings.Beckettportraysthereligiousfactorsthatinfluencepeople’sthoughtandbehavior.Herethispointwasrepresentedinanotherway,Estragon:What?Vladimir:Supposewerepented.Estragon:Repentedwhat?Vladimir:Oh⋯Wewouldn’thavetogointothedetails.Estragon:Ourbeingborn?Thetopictheytalkedaboutrelatedtotheoriginalsin,buttheydidn’tsurewhattheywaitingforGodotabout,neitherdotheyknowwhattorepent.Moreimportantly,theyevendidn’tknowwhetherGodotwillcomeandwhenwillhecome:Estragon:Youareitwasthisevening?Vladimir:What?Estragon:Thatweweretowait.Vladimir:HesaidSaturday.(Pause)Ithink.Estragon:Youthink.Vladimir:Imusthavemadeanoteofit.Estragon:ButwhatSaturday?AndisitSaturday?ItisnotratherSunday(Pause.)OrMonday?(Pause.)OrFriday?Vladimir:Itisnotimpossible.Estragon:OrThursday?Vladimir:What’llwedo?TheirbeliefinGodwasnotcertain.Theirbehavior—reducedtocrawling“on[their]isalsoonethingthatcouldaccountforthis.Intheancientcultures,manalwaysapproachedadeityonhiskneesandhands.Estragonasked:“we’velostourrights?”whileVladimiransweredthat:“wegetridofthem”.ItmaymeanthattheygiveuptheirbeliefinGod.Furthermore,evenifGodotcomes,theyhavenoideaaboutwhattheycouldaskfor?Tothisextent,throughBeckett’sdescription,wecouldseethatthetwotrampsaretherepresentativesofhumanbeingswhowereinconfused.26
EspeciallytheyaretheincarnationsoftheIrishwhoexperiencedthesufferingsandhaveanambivalentattitudetowardsGodandhelpless.Intheplay,theyareinanextremelyawkwardposition,waitingforGodotfromtheverybeginningtotheend.Vladimirrealized‘nothingtobedone’,owingtoEstragon’sfoothurtingandhissuffering,combinedwiththeirappallinghumancondition,whichmadehimthinkaboutthesufferingofthetwothievesandtheirlackofhope.Besides,inLucy’sspeech,wecouldfindthathereferredtotheGodmanytimesbutinfragments,whichmaymeanthattheambivalentattitudetowardsGod.IfthereisGod,andifGodpitiesIreland,whywouldhepaynoattentiontothesufferings?Inotherwords,Lucky’snonstopspeechisanotherkindofappealandcomplaint.ThedisappearanceofGodinAllThatFallrevealstheabsoluteemptinessoftheworld,thatdomainofmeaninglessandofdeath.Thetileoftheplaycomesfromabiblicalquotation:“TheLordupholdethallthatfallandraisethupallthosethatbeboweddown.(Bible145)”whichcouldbeinterpretedasthemeaningthatthosewhofallwillbehelpedandsomehowsaved.However,itisnottruethroughoutthetext.Onthecontrary,Lordisabsentwhenpeopleneedhishelp.Inthestoryofalittlegirlwhowasdying,nothingcouldbedonetocureherbutusingtheexcusethat:“thetroublewithherwasshehadneverbeenreallyborn.”Intheshadowofthechildwhohasfallen(orbeenpushed)fromthetrainthatcausedthedelayoftheupmail,thetitularquotationseemsmordantlyironic:Lordhasnot‘upheld’thechildthatfellfromthetrain,whichisaparadoxthatthegeneralmeaninglessnessofexistencegiventheseemingdesertionofhumanitybyGod.2.2.TheDisabledIrishInabilityisthemostdirectfeatureoftheIrishpeopleespeciallythosewhoexperiencedthewarfare.Beckettdrewalotofparalyzedimageswhosufferedthewarfareandrepresentedthesocietyinthattime.Underthebackgroundofturmoil,27
personalabilityisverylimited,theycoulddonothingbutadaptingtoenvironment.Inhisplays,BeckettdepictsthecharacterswhopossessthetypicalcharacteristicsoftheIrishpeople,thatistimidanddisable,toshowhisthoughtsofIrishness.MostofthemaincharactersinBeckett’splayshavephysicalproblems,onefeatureofthecharactersdescribedinthethreeplaysisthattheyalllackthesenseofdirectionanddon’tknowwhatthepurposeoflivingis.Morespecifically,theblindeyes(threeblindpeopleinthreeplays),thebodiesgrotesqueintheirthinnessorfatness,paralyzedandmostpetrified,thesenileimpotents,theleglessobsession,theyconstituteacruelhumiliatingimageofman.ThesedescriptionsechothemiserableIrishwhoenduredthesufferingsandpainsbutnearlycandonothingtoimprovetheirlife.Theyallhaveanaggingawarenessoftheprecariousnessoftheirsituation,asituationthatbeyondtheirphysicalconcerns,buttheycouldhardlydoanythingtomaketheirsituationbetter.Whattheycandoistoendurethebadsituation.UnabletocommunicatewithothersisanotheraspectthatcouldbeusedtodescribetheIrish.CharactersinBeckett’splaysareinpairsinwhichoneofthemsymbolizesIreland,suchasEstragoninWaitingforGodotandClovinEndgame,theotherstandsforEnglandlikeVladimirandHamm.LanguagewhichisabarrierbetweenthecharacterswasusedtoshowtheIrishpeople’sinabilitybyBeckett.Charactersinhisplaysaretiedtogetherbyafearofbeingleftentirelyalone,andthey,therefore,areeagertoestablishsomekindofcommunicationwhichseemstobetheirlasthope.InWaitingforGodot,thetwoderelictsareunabletocommunicate.EspeciallyEstragon,theimageofIreland,whosometimescannotunderstandwhatVladimirsaid,letalonetoleavinghim.Theirphysicalproblemsaretheirplightinreality,Estragon’ssorefeetindicatesthathecannotgofurtherwithoutthehelpofVladimir.OwingtothehelpofVladimir,Estragonsurvivedthedrowning,whichechoedthesituationinEndgamethatHammnarratedheconsentedtotakeinachild—probablyClov.EstragonandClovbotharetherepresentativesofthehelplessIrish.28
Vladimir:Oh...(Hereflects.)Wecouldn’thavegointothedetails.Estragon:Ourbeingborn?Vladimirbreaksintoaheartylaughwhichheimmediatelystifles,hishandpressedtohispubis,hisfacecontorted.Vladimir:Onedaren’tevenlaughanymore.Beforethelaugh,theyaretalkingthestoryofbeenrepented,butheretheyturnedtothephysicalsituation.Besides,thecommentof“Onedaren’tevenlaughanymore”isanotherearlyindicationoftheseriousnessoftheircondition.Vladimir’sapprehensionoverlaughingsuggeststhattheybothhavearaggingawarenessoftheprecariousnessandinsecurityoftheircondition,aconditionthatextendsbeyondtheirphysicalconcerns.Similarly,LuckyinWaitingforGodotisaslaveimageoranIrishfarmerwhoseemstobeintelligentintermsofhislongspeech.However,inactI,hecanspeakbutcan’tcommunicatewithothers,theonlythinghecandoistoshowhiscapacityincarryingstuffsandobeyingorders,bydongthisthingshemaynotbetakentothefairaccordingthemaster-likeimage—Pozzo.ThoughAllThatFallisaradioplay,itssettingismorespecificthantheothertwoplays.ItmirrorsthelifeoftheIrishaswell,thedescriptionofthetrainandthemotorcarimpliesthatthewholeconditionofIrelandismuchbetter,butpeopleherestilllivedinpoorandtheirphysicalconditionwasnotmuchbetterthatbefore.MaddyRooney,ill,obeseandgarrulous,hastoendureherphysicalandspiritualpain,especiallythedeathofheronlydaughterwhodiedinherearlyyears.Duringhersojourninrailwaystation,mostofthetime,shecouldn’tcommunicatewithotherseffectively.Tothisextent,BecketttriestoconveythatthecapacityofpatheticIrishislimitedandthattheycanhardlydoanythingtochangetheirsituation.BehaviorwasalsotakenintoconsiderationinexpressingthedisabledIrishinBeckett’splays.ItisEnglandthatIrelandhadtorelyoninmostoccasions,buttheattitudetowardsofgettingridofEnglandwasambivalent.ThoughEstragonsaid29
“I’mgoing.”frequentlybuttheyarebothgladtoseeeachotheragainandembraceeachotherafterashortdeparture.Moreimportantly,itisVladimirwhosearchedhispockettofindacarrotandthengaveittoEstragontomaintainhislifeafterhearticulatedthat“I’mhungry!”InEndgame,it’sHammwhohasthecombinationofthecupboardwherethesupplywasstored(“Iwilltellyouthecombinationofthecupboard...”),andwhoisinthedominatepositionandgivesordertoClovbywhistling.Inthissense,BeckettshowsthattheIrishwasunabletoescapeemotionallyandmaterially.Specifically,EstragonandHammaretheslaveimageandtheybothsufferedthepainofbeenordered,aswellastriedtogetridofthissituation.Accordingtothecontext,theireffortsinleavingwereprobablyfailed,whichillustratedthatduringthatperiodtheIrishpeoplewholivedinplightareunabletohelpthemselves.Inthebackgroundofcatastrophe,theFamineinWaitingforGodotandthebombardinEndgame,characterssufferedalotandcannotcommunicatewitheachotherefficiently,whichseemtorepresenttheineptnessofthemankindinitsattempttocommunicate.Insuchsituation,itrapidlybecomesapparentthatthepairscannotformulateanycogentofusefulresolutionoraction.Andwhatismorepathetic,theycannotcommunicatetheirhelplesslongingstooneanother.Asaresult,theycouldnotsolvetheproblembutjustkillthetimebydoingsome“interesting”thingsorhavingaconversationinarepetitivedialogue.SuchasDidiandGogowhotriedtohungthemselvesandClovwholooksoutthroughthewindowagainandagaininHamm’sorder.Byshowingtotalcollapseofcommunication,Beckettpresentsthatpeoplehavenoabilitytoaltertheirsituation.2.3.TheDialectThelanguageandtheethnicityarethekeytodefinetheconceptofnation(Hobsbawm59).Language,astheveryimportantsignofculture,isthecarrierthat30
hasthepowertoarticulateandcreateculturaldistinctionandbearsthecollectivememory.RepresentingIrishnessnecessarilyinvolvestheissueoflanguage.Inotherwords,languageservestomaketheIrishauniquenation,differentfromotherEnglish-speakingones.Inthissense,“languagecanmitigateasenseoflostcommunityandunitedifferentpeopleandperspectivesunderthehegemonyofasinglebanner”(Spangler38).Asisallknowntous,Irelandusedtobecolonized,solanguageisafactorwhichcouldbetakenintoconsiderationwhenwetalkaboutIrishness.GaelicwhichwasregardedasIrishnativelanguagewasgraduallyexpulsedoutofpublicspheresafterruledbyIreland.Duetotheoccupation,Irelandexperiencedadifficulttimeandwasattheriskofbeenassimilated,aswellasitscultureandhistorywhichwascarriedbythislanguage.ThoughIrishsurvivedintheinvasionofotherlanguages,thehumiliationmadeBeckettconfusedabouthisculturalidentity.SavingtheendangeringGaelic,preservingandusingGaelicmorefrequentlyandgenerallyisacrucialmeanstoguaranteetheindependenceofIrelandandIrishculture.Asweknow,BeckettlivedinFranceafterhisadulthood,buthiseffortsinrepresentingIrishnessoriginsfromhislanguagechoicewhichisnotasobviousasthatinotherwriters’work.Beckett’stextsoftenenableindisputableconnectionstobemadewithanIrishsetting,findingcoherencewithinthisaspectofhisworkisfarmorechallenging,notleastwhenanIrishidiomisused.OneofthereasonsisthathechosetowriteinFrench.Ontheonehand,writinginEnglishisoutofdateinthattime,andontheotherhand,hiscomplicatedemotion(thehistoryofbeencolonization)towardsEnglishmadehimhesitatetouseEnglish,togetherwiththeunpleasantexperienceinhisearlyperiod.Beckettdecidedtomakeabreakthrough,thatis,writeinFrench.ItseemsthatBeckett’semploymentofFrenchisakindofdiscardingIrishfeature.However,itisnotthefact.HismovetoFranceisalandmarkinhiscareerandenableshimtocreateadifferentstyle,atthesametimehisconcernspresentedmoreclearly.Meanwhile,hefounditdifficulttoestablishindependent31
identityandproducedistinctculturalimagination.Therefore,somecriticsholdthatontheaspectoflanguage,Beckettismorecosmopolitan.Despitesomecriticsholdthatopinion,itisvaluableforustoexplorehowBeckettreconstructIrishness.OneofanoutstandingfeaturesaboutBeckettisthathetranslatedhisFrenchplayshimself.Insteadoftranslatingdirectly,heconjugates,transformsandrebuildsEnglishinanIrishwaywhichmixedupwithIrishpronunciationandwords.Theadaptation,asMorinwrites,maybereadas“illustratingauniquelyIrishpredicament,asthetextbecomesareflexionuponexileandlinguisticdisplacementinthetransferfromFrenchtoHiberno-English”.Inhiscreation,BeckettusestheoriginalGaelictermswhichhadbeenremovedbytheBritishinhisplays.TheuseoflanguageinAllThatFallhasarichlocalflavor,thereisarhetoricalzest,arhythmicalextravagance,andamelancholyhumor,thatrecallSynge,orMr.O’Caseyintheirearlyplays.Whilespeakingaboutgoingtothetoiletatthestation,Mr.Rooneysaid:“Jerryledmetothemen’s,orFirastheycallitnow,fromVir,VirisIsuppose,theVbecomingFinaccordancewithGrimm’sLaw”.Inthispassage,BeckettmockstheoutcomeofGaeliclanguage,whichishiswaytorepresentIrishness.ThetextofAllThatFallmaybedrawnupinAnglo-Irish,butitisnotallthemorefamiliarforthat.Apartfromusingthesimplestofwords,Maddyfindsherwayinspeaking“very...bizarre”.She“estrange(s)themall”.Beckett’sreturntothisno-placeofhismindisalsoareturntoIrishspeechrhythms,asVivianMercieralreadyshowed,butitisareturntoanoldersonorityofvoice,toneandidiom,anearliersyntax.MorethanjustaquestionofgettingintouchagainwithcolloquialIrishspeechcodesandpatterns,asinChristy’s“Yepwiyyatohellowwathat!”,orMaddy’sarchaismswhichareasdeadas“ourownpoordearGaelic”,Beckettishearingvoicesalloveragain“inthedeadoft’othernight”,ortouseJuliaKristeva’sterm,heisreencounteringthematernalsemiotic.Turnedtowritteninotherlanguagedidn’tmeansthatBeckettabandontheIrishfeatures.Onthecontrary,somefeaturesoflanguagecouldbetastedmorebydoing32
differentchoices.ThroughaminutestylisticandsyntacticalanalysisoftheFrenchandEnglishtext,MorinidentifiespatternsreminiscentofHiberno-EnglishthatsurfaceintheFrenchemphaticstructures;similarly,shepointsouthowanIrishflavorisaddedtotheEnglish-languagetextwhenaddressingtheFrench“original’s”culturalandlinguisticplayfulness,orlanguageeffectssignallingthenarrator’ssensitivitytoliteralmeaningsofverbalclichésindicativeofanon-nativespeaker’spositioninlanguage(Mihálycsa181).Infact,besidesthelanguageitself,theconfusionandsearchofIrish-EnglisharehisendeavorstofightforthestatueofIreland.FacingthelossofdecliningoftheIrishandtheunavoidablerevolution,itisnonsensetobeaddictedtothepast.OnlythroughtheconstructionofnationalconsciousnessandculturalimagescouldreconstructIrishnationalhistoryandculturalidentity.BeckettusesuniquelanguageskillstoshowhisconcernofIrelandandtheIrishhistory.WecouldeasilyfindhisstrongsenseofIrishnessbyuncoveringtheshadowoflanguage.33
ChapterThreeHistoricizingIrishnessItisknowntousthatinordertocreateanationalliterature,writersmustbefamiliarwiththenation’smythsandfolklores.Beckett,though,relocatedinParis,heisfamiliarwithIrishaswell.TothePrimitiveinhabitantsinIreland,history,intheirmemory,likesalong-timenightmare.TherelationshipbetweenBeckettandIrelandisacomplicatedculturalphenomenon.Intheprocessofintegratingtraditionalculturewithmoderncultureandnationalculturewithinternationalculture,dramabecomesastrategicchoiceforBecketttoredefinehisIrishnationalidentity.BeckettreconstructsIrishnessnotonlythroughdescribingthegeographicspaceofIrelandandcharacterizingIrishpeoplebutalsobyhistorizingIreland:Beckett’sadolescenceinIrelandcoincidedwiththeAnglo-IrishWarfollowedbytheIrishCivilWar.HevisitedGermanyduringFascistregimeand,asalreadyseen,partookinthestruggleagainstNazipowerinParis.ThesemaynotoccurinthesurfacerepresentationsofBeckett’swork,buttheaftershockstheyemittedthroughthevalues,beliefsandattitudesofthesocietiesinwhichhelivedandthoughtsurelypassedthroughandtosomeextentmouldedhiscreativeintelligence.(McDonald23)Beckett’sIrishnesswasenlightenedbymeansofrememberingthehistory.AnalternativeoftheIrishinfluenceinBeckett’sdramahascomefromthosecriticswhoseetheplaysasessentiallyvehiclesbywhichBeckettevokesIrelandthroughmemory(Saunders7).Notjusthisnationality,butalsohisparticularclassandcastewithinIrishsocietycanbefruitfullybroughttobearonhisaestheticandintellectualdevelopment.34
3.1.RememberingtheTraumaticNationalMemoryNationalconsciousnessandculturalmemoryhavebeenamainthemein20thIrishliterature.Initsbeginning,Yeats,inthemovementoftheIrishLiteraryRevival,endeavoredtopresenttheheroicimageintraditionalIrishlegendsinordertoreconstructtheimageoftheIrishpeopleonthetheatricalstage;SeamusHeaneyinhispoemsdatesbacktoIrishtraditionalreligion,languageandhistory,introspectingmulti-levelIrishculture.AlongwiththeliberationmovementoftheIrishpeopleandtheprocessofpost-colonization,theIrishliteratureinthe20thcenturyfocusesonlanguage,history,exilesandotherthemesinordertoexpressthesearchfortheirIrishculturalidentity.Saidcitesaviewthat,besidesYeats,severalgenerationsofIrishlesserwritersalsoarticulatetheexpressionofIrishidentityasitattachestotheland,toitsCelticoriginsandtoaspecificallynationalliterature.Irelandisacountrywhohadatraumaticexperience.Similarly,Beckettalsoexperiencedmanysufferings.HewasborninawealthyfamilyinthesuburbofDublin,capitaloftheIreland,andhisfamilylivedinapuritanparisheightmilesawayfromDublin.Hiscuriosityandsympathywasarousedbythebizarrethingshesaw,suchasthebeggarsandthetrampswhomaybethevictimofthewarortheinjuredsoldierinthevillageandthosewhowereconfinedtotheirhousebecauseofpsychosis.Asaresult,Beckett,whoissusceptibletotheagony,oncesaidthat“youmaysayIhadahappychildhood...althoughIhadlittletalentforhappiness.”Therefore,BeckettconstructsIrishnessbyrememberingthetraumaticnationalmemory.Furthermore,hisownlifeexperienceandIrishsocietybackgroundplayacrucialroleinrememberingthetraumaticIrishhistory.HislifeexperiencewhichisstronglyassociatedwiththecalamitousIrelandcouldhelpuslocatethehistoryroughlyandreminiscethattime’ssociety.Owingtohisfather’sdeathwhichhadagreatinfluenceonhimbothfinanciallyandspiritually,BecketheadforLondonto35
recoverin1933.Duringhisself-exilethere,Becketthadaunusuallyacutesensitivitytothesufferingofothersentientbeingsandtheillness,whichmadehimbegintothinkaboutthelivingstateofpeople.HewastorturedbymarginalizationandalienationinIreland,acountryinturmoil.NeitherdidhefindconsolationbythelifeinEngland.Likewise,charactersinBeckett’splaysarealsothemarginalizedoneswithoutaccurateidentity,whichbearsastrongrelationwithhislivingexperience.Beckettexilesallhislife,leavinghisbirthplace—Irelandinhisearlyages.He,however,didnotabandonhisIrishnationalitythoughheroamedothercountries.Hesufferedthepainof‘marginalization’,includinghisself-marginalization,whichmadehimreconstructIrishcultureinhisimaginationandgetridofthecontrolofsocalled“authority”inliteratureinspirit.Beckett’sself-exileisinaccordancewiththemarginalizedIrishcultureheexperiencedinthecolonizedandpost-colonizedperiod,whichhintstheIrishfeaturesinhisdramaticworks.ArtistslikeBecketthaveastrongsenseofbeenalienationandmarginalizationinsuchacountrywhichiscoveredbytheframesinliterature,andselfexilegenerallybecomestheonlychoicethatmostoftheintellectualscando.O’Briensaidthat,“Beckett’splaystakeplaceonstrangeandalienlandscapes(someofthesettingsofhisplaysremindoneofaworldtransformedbysomeholocaustorcreatedbysomesurrealist.Beckett’sdialoguerecallsthedisjointedphantasmagoriaofadreamworldandthedevouringhistoryofIreland.”IfthememoryofbeencolonizedtogetherwiththememoryoftheGreatHungercouldaccountforcollectiveunconsciousnessoftheIrish,theindependencewarattheturnofthecenturywasthebackgroundagainstwhichyoungBeckettlived.Andhisplays,thoughdidn’ttellusthepositionclearly,arebasedonhisexperienceandthesettings,tosomeextent,implythatinIrelandinspitethatcriticsregardBeckettmorecosmopolitan.TheendoftheWorldWarIdidn’tterminateorreducethesufferingsofIrishpeople;instead,theirlifewasworsenedbythesequencedcivilwar.Thedevastatingsceneshesawandthetraumaticmemoryofhisearlyyearsweredeeplyrootedinhismind.Asaresult,hiscomplexattitudetowardsIrelandand36
Englandwasformed.BeckettpresentsIrishnessbyrepresentingtheIrishmemoryinhisplays,fromwhichwecanexplorethein-depthrelationbetweenhimandIrishculturesoastodiscovertheinternalmechanismofhisnationalculturalappeal.Ireland,acountrythatexperiencedandevastatingperiod,isthefirstterritorycolonizedbyEngland,asaresult,theBritishruleexacerbatedthelivingconditionoftheIrish.Evenmore,theunprecedentedGreatHungerbetween1845and1852madetheirsituationevenworse,whichdestroyedtheeconomyandpeople’slifeandbroughtadisastertoIrishcultureandseriouslytorturedtheIrishinemotionalaspect.ItseemsthatitistheeventssuchastheGreatHungerthatresultedtothedisastroussituationinIreland.However,toexploreitdeeply,onecouldfindthatitistherelentlesscolonizationofEnglandthataccountedforIrishpeople’spoorsituation.ThethreeplayscorrespondsthetimeorderwhichechoesthehistoricperiodinIreland:theGreatFamine,WarTimeandpostwar.Fromthis,wecanseethatBeckettdisplayshisconcernsbyrecordingthedifferentperiodandpeople’sdifferentattitude.Whatisthecommonthingisthattheirlifeconditionispoorandtheysuffersbothphysicallyandmentally.ThoughBeckettismoreacosmopolitanwriter,theIrishelementsstillhideinhisplays.Apartfromthis,Beckettalsodepictsthesituationthatfarmerswholackfoodwasoppressedbylandlord.ThatthetwofiguresinWaitingforGodotareinanold,second-rateburlesqueproductionshowsthelivingconditionofIrishpeople.Endgame,morebleakthanWaitingforGodot,suggestedawartime,andoutsidetheshelterthereisnothingbut“gray”and“zero”.Attheendoftheplaytheimageoflittleboymaybeabombthathelpedtofastentheendofthewar.SimilartothelifeinWaitingforGodot,here,peoplelackfood,too.37
3.2.DramatizingtheMemoryoftheIrishNationAnyonewhohadreadtheplaysofBeckettwouldbesurprisedatthephenomenonthatalmostallthecharactershavephysicalproblems.Beckett’scomplicatednationalmemorydirectlyinfluencedhisdramaticworks.Inmostofhisworks,thoughheobscuresthetimeandplaceonpurpose,itdidn’timpedeustofindtheindicationofIrishness.ThisdelicatedesignforcefullydemonstratedhisreconstructionofIrishnationalspirit.Beckettforsakenthetraditionaldramaticformsandtechniquesthroughsubvertingthetimeandspaceandestablishedanewnationaldiscoursesysteminthesebinaryoppositeswithinthepastandnow,mentalandspiritual,habitandmemory,whichisinheritanceanddevelopmentoftheIrishnationalculturespirit.InBeckett’splays,therearelotsofindirectdescriptions,mainlythesufferingsandpains,remindingusoftheIrishhistory.HeusesanotherwaytoexpresshisIrishness,thatis,dramatizesthesehistoriceventsintohiscreationwhichcouldhelptocoverhisownthoughts.Thoughitisobscure,thesedescriptionsdoreflectacertaintimeandplacewhichwereobviouslyconcernedwiththemiserableIrishmemoryandhistory.Ontheonehand,herepresentsthehistorybycondensingthehistoriceventsintotheplay,suchastheGreatFamineinWaitingforGodot.Ontheotherhand,Beckettdramatizestheseeventsaimedatraisingtheanti-EnglishnationalconsciousnessamongtheIrishpeople,stimulatingtheirresonancetorecognizetheirsituation.TheseeventsforegroundedthecatastrophichistoryofIreland,andevokedthestrongreflectionofhumanconditionamongtheaudiences.AfterWorldWarII,BeckettsettledinFranceandbeganhiscareerasawriterallhislife.ThepublicationofWaitingforGodotin1953markedhissuccessinliteratureandhismovetodrama,whichalsomadeIrishliteraturefamiliartopublic.CriticstendedtoemphasizetheuniversalityofBeckett’sconcerns,duetothepaucityofwell-definedgeographicalandhistoricalanchors.But,ifputtheseplaysintotheIrishhistoryandculturaldiscourse,theinterconnectedspiritualboundcouldbeseen.Itis38
thetraumaticmemoryofIrishnationandhisearlyexperiencethathadagreatinfluenceonhisliteraturewriting.AwayfromIrelandenablesBeckettthinkoverthepoliticalandsocialconnotationinIrishliteratureovertlyagainstthecolonizedsystem,owingtowhichhisplaysarefilledwithphilosophicalmeanings.Apartfromthis,therigidcensorshipinIrelandmadeartistsgraduallylosetheirsocialstatus,andtheinactiveliteraryclimateconfinesartists’inspiration,whichmadeIrelandstayawayfromtheavant-gardewhichisactiveinEuropeinthattime.ForBeckett,duringthattime,Irishliteraturehasnothingbutpoliticalfunctions.WhyBeckettseriouslyabhorredthecensorshipisthathethoughtpoliticaldiscoursewhichwasrepetitiousandsimplereplacedthereality.Furthermore,theelucidationthatdetachedfromrealityhadastronginfluenceonpeople’sexperienceandideology.EvenifhehadnegativeattitudetowardsIrishliterarycircles,theelementsaboutIrishgeography,historyandreligionstillhauntinhisworks.Onthesurface,Beckett’splayshavenotingtodowithIrelandbecauseofitsobscuresettingthesetting,however,itistheobscuresettingthathighlightsBeckett’s“rootless”identity,whichmadehisplaysdistinguishedandmorecosmopolitan.BeckettshowshisIrishnessbydramatizingthehistoryroughlyinhisplaysthoughthereisnoclearevidenceaboutIrishgeography,cultural,historicalfeatures.Hevisualizesthecharacterintospecificimages.TheimageofEstragon,tosomeextent,resemblesIrelandwhoareinabadcondition.Atthebeginning,EstragontoldthathespentanightinaditchandwasbeatenbysomeoneanonymouswhichmirrorsthatdifficultperiodinIreland,duringwhichtimeIrishlivedinapoorlifeandhadtoenduredtheaggression.Vladimironesaid:“weshouldhavethoughtofitamillionyearsago,inthenineties.”whichsuggestedthatitwasabout1900sduringwhichIrelandwasjustsurvivedfromtheGreatHunger,causedbyrecurringpotatoblights,lastedfrom1845to1849.AccordingtoCecilWoodham-SmithinTheGreatHunger,ittookoveronemillionlives,mostofthemCatholicpeasants.By1900,becauseof39
theFamineandconsequentemigration,theIrishpopulationwashalfthesizeithadbeenbefore1845.InWaitingforGodot,BecketthintsthehistoryoftheGreatFamine(1845-1849)inIrelandandprojectsthehistoryinthefeaturesofcharacters.Herestoresthe19thcenturylandlordcaricature—Pozzo,inhisheartlessness—“Iamperhapsnotparticularlyhuman,butwhocares?”andVivianMercierobservedthathe“isdressedaswerethewickedlandlordsinthemelodramasofVictorianIreland”(“TheUneventfulEvent”)intheIrishTimesin1956.Pozzo,alandlord,claimstoownthegroundonwhichVladimirandEstragonarestandingastheywaitforGodot,haughtilyaccusingthemoftrespass:“Here?Onmyland?”;hasaslavehelphimwithalmostallthethings;possessesabundantsupplies:food(wine,chicken)anddecorationsthatsymbolizedhiswealthandstatus,includinga'half-hunter'watch,anineteenth-centuryanachronism,behind'atthemanor'andapipe,a‘KappandPeterson’,symbolicofparticularlyProtestantwealthandstatus(theshop,whichwashighlyfashionableinitsday,standsoppositethegatesofTrinityCollege).Thepipe,togetherwithhisnonchalantattitudetowardshisjourney,defineshimasamanofleisureforallhismaniacaltendencieselsewhere.BeckettalsovisualizestherelationbetweenlandlordandfarmerduringtheFaminefromtheconversation.Landlordsweredespisedbecausetheyseemedvindictiveasmuchasindifferenttowardstheirstarvingtenants.Woodham-Smithdescribeshowmanylandlordsnotonlyrefusedtofeedstarvingpeasants,butalsopursuedlegalsettlementsagainstthosewhofailedinpayrent.SuchacallousattitudeismirroredinPozzoexploitingLuckytotheutmostdegreebyplanningtosellhimat'thefair',despiteyearsoffaithfulservice.Thestereotypicalnineteenth-centuryIrishlandlordcaricaturedthepeasantasshiftyandmotivatedbylowcunning,andPozzowhosimilarlysuspectsLuckydeclaresthathisimpressiveserviceismerelyarusetoconvincehismasternottolethimgo:“Hewantstocodme...Suchishismiserablescheme.”LuckyresemblesaFaminevictimbothinhismarkedexclusionfrom40
Pozzo'sostentatiouspicnicandinhisshockingphysicalappearance.AsPozzo,replete,puffsawayonhispipe,incontrast,Luckyisofferedmerelythebonesofthechickentognaw.InLucky’smonologue,theimageryassociatedwithmortalitycarriesconnotationsofdecaythroughmalnutrition:“wasteandpine”,“shrinkanddwindle”.InActII,Lucky’sdumbafterrecitingthetiradeshowshiseducationhasnotbeenneglected,Pozzo’sblindandhistyrannyimpotent,theseseventsmirrorsthethedeclineofthelandlordhistoricallyafterthewar.Lucky’sreferencetothe“skullinConnemara’gesturetowardsBeckett’sIrishroots(thoughthisis‘Normandie’intheoriginalFrenchversion).BeckettusesconversationsandactionspresenttheIrishhistoryvividly,especiallytheinterrelationbetweenIrelandandEngland.NomatterVladimirandEstragoninWaitingforGodotorHammandClovinEndgame,theircommunicationstyleissimilar,aswellastheplot,theybothshadowedtheparallelhistoricalandpoliticalclimate.Beckettdramatizesthiselementsintohisplaystodisclosethataworldinwhichthecharacterslivedisfilledwithsufferinganddisaster,whichrecursthewiredIrishhistoryandpeopleinthattimelivedinanonsenseandtheycouldnothingbutthedesolatedandbleakscenery.TheirwaitingshadowstheupsanddownsintermsoftherelationshipbetweenIrelandandEngland,suchastheshortlydepartureandbackwhichimplytheeffortsthatIrelandtriedtogetridofEngland.IntheendofActI,Estragonasked:“howlonghavewebeentogetherallthetimenow?（Beckett37）”Vladimirsaidfifityyearsmaybe.Inotherwordsmaybetheyhavebeentiedtoeachotheralmostfiftyyears.WhileinActII,peopleshouldnoticethatthebaretreeareinfouroffiveleaves,whichsuggestedthechangeintheirrelationshiporwereitthepredictionofthefuturebetweenIrelandandEngland.ThedecorofEndgamealsocontributedtotheimpressionofaworldcomingtoitsend.Hammreferstotheroomonthestageasa‘shelter’,anditsbareness,greylights,andthegreynothingnessofthebarren,uninhabitedworldoutsidethe41
windowsallpointtothedistinctpossibilitythatHamm,Clov,Nell,andNaggmaybethatthelastsurvivorsofsomedreadfulcatastrophe.(itisworthnotingthat,atthetimeBeckettwroteEndgame,themanyhoursspentintheair-raidsheltersduringWorldWarIIwerestillvividmemoriestomostEuropeans,andthehorrorsofimpendingnuclearwarwerebecomingamasterofwidespreadconcern.)inotherwords,inhistory,Irishlivedinanmiserablelife,threatenedbywaritselfandtheoutcomeofthewaraswell.Therearetwoashbinsandalargeobjectcoveredwithasheetintheroomwhichresemblesafurniturestoragehousewithoutanysignoflife.ThissettingistypicalofBeckett;itisbizarreandunfamiliarwhichcouldimplythesituationoftheafter-warIreland.AlsothelivingconditioninEndgameistherecurrenceoftheGreatFamineduringwhichpeopledidnothaveenoughfoodtomaintaintheirlife.NAGG:Mepap!HAMM:Accursedprogenitor!....NAGG:Mepap!HAMM:Givehimhispap.CLOV:There'snomorepap.HAMM[toNagg]:Doyouhearthat?There'snomorepap.You'llnevergetanymorepap.NAGG:Iwantmepap!HAMM:Givehimabiscuit.(Beckett60)Thereisnomorefood,andtheyhavetolivewiththelimitedsupplementarywhichisthesituationoftheIrishduringtheFamine.42
TheopeningwordofEndgame:“Finished,it’sfinished...”setthethemeforthisdramawhichmeansthemiserablehistoryofIrelandmayfinish.Inaddition,thenameofClovalsoalludedthehistoryofIreland.Clov,thenameofonecharacterissimilartothepronunciationof“Kov”whichmayhavebeengeneratedbystrictlyverbalmanipulationandfinallywasfounditwasthestandardpronunciationofNóbh,amajorIrishportthatwasrenamed“Queenstown”bythedominatingEngland.Thiscontributedtoasubtlepost-colonialinterpretationoftheplayandaccountedforthefactthatIrelandoncewascontrolledbyEngland.AllThatFallisaradioplaythatreliesagreatdealforitsimpactsonsoundeffectsandaverycarefulattentiontothespokenword.ThismightimplythataftertheCivilwarIrelandrevivedbutIrishpeoplestilllivedinabadcondition.AsinWaitingforGodotandEndgame,Beckettbuildshisdramaonthebasisofarelationshipbetweenpeople,buthereitispossibletoseetheexplorationofasinglecharacterinspaceinAllThatFall.Byvirtueofthischangeincomposing,BeckettseemstoremindusthatIrelandhasalreadygetridofthecolonizationthoughpeople’slifeseemstounchanged.WhatisdistinctiveaboutAllThatFallisthatthoughitalsopayattentiontothesufferings,itrelatestothemodernlife.Beckett’sworksbreakthroughthetraditionallimitationintermsofcarnivalanddiscoursetofightagainsttheerosionofcolonialcultureindisplayingIreland.Bydisposingthedisasterofhouse-devastated,hisplaysacttheroleofaccusationofthecolonizedsystem.3.3.HistoricizingrelationshipsbetweencharactersAsacolonizationofBritainforhundredsofyears,therelationshipbetweenIrelandandBritainwasinterwovenwitheachotherdeeply.Duringthecolonizedperiod,theIrishlivedinapainfullifeandsufferedalot,inordertogetridofthecontroloftheBritain,theyfoughtforfreedomandequalitysuccessively.Although43
Beckettwasbornin1906,andhedoesn’texperiencethemostdifficulttimeofIreland,suchasGreatFamine,theknowledgeoftheIrishhistoryandhisexperienceofthewarmadehimunderstandthesufferingbetter.ThoughborninIrish,BeckettisreluctanttoshowhisconcernsaboutIrelandandtherelationshipbetweenhimandIrelandisfarmorecomplicated,wecanstillfindsomehintstoshowhisIrishnessinanalyzingtherelationshipbetweencharacters.Historically,Irelandsufferedalotinfightingforfreedomandgrowingbetter.Beckettgroupshischaractersinpairs,inwhichoneisdominantpartandtheotherisinferior,andtheybothsymbolizeandobjectifytherelationshipintermsofhistory.HeembodiedtherelationsbetweenBritainandIrelandinhisplaysbydepictingandarrangingtheconversations.TheopeningwordsinWaitingforGodotisthat“Nothingcouldtobedone.”Itimpliedthatthetwotrampslivedapainfullifeandtheycandoalmostnothingtochangetheirsituation,buttheyarealsolinkedtoeachotherinsomeundefined,ambiguousway:Vladimir:I’mgladtoseeyouback.Ithoughtyouweregoneforever.Estragon:Metoo.Vladimir:Togetheragainatlast!We’llhavetocelebratethis.Specifically,aftertheirsalutation,EstragonaskedVladimirforhelpwithhisboot,insteadofrespondingtoEstragon’simmediatephysicalproblem,Vladimirisextremelyimpatientandturnedtomoreabstractmatters:“HandinhandfromthetopoftheEiffelTower,amongthefirst.Wewererespectableinthosedays.Nowit’stoolate.Theywouldn’tevenletusup(Beckett20).”andaskedEstragon:“Whatareyoudoing?”again.IfEstragonwasthesymbolofIreland,thepainhesufferedwouldbedifficultiesIrelandcameacross,andVladimir’sattitudemadeitclearthatevenifIrelandisthecolonizationofBritainandgovernedbyBritain,itcouldnotgetanyhelpwhenitwasindifficulty.Therefore,theybothconjecturediftheotherwasgoneforever.Duringtheirwaiting,onceEstragonwantedtotellhisdreamornightmareto44
Vladimirafterbeenawakenbyhim,insteadoflistening,Vladimirrefusedtolistentohimevenwithoutitssubjectbeingrevealed.ThissymbolizesthatdominatedbyVladimir,Estragonhadnoopportunitytoexpresshisideaandsuffering.ItjustliketherelationshipbetweenIrelandandBritain,IrelandhadtosuccumbtothecontrolofBritain.Inordertopassthetime,theycameuptheideaofhangingwhichhasanotherincentive:itwouldexcitethesexuallyandcauseeachtohaveanerectionandanejaculation,butitalsohassomeproblemsandthentheplanwasabandoned.ItimpliedthehistorythattheregionproblemfrustratedbothBritainandIreland,andeventuallytheBritaingaveupalteringthereligionoftheIrish.Also,whatVladimirsaid—‘youarelighterthanIam.’echoedthefactthatBritainisstrongerthanIreland.Inspiteoftheirstrangedependency,however,neitherisabletocommunicatewitheachotherwhichindirectlyreflectsthatthefightbetweenBritainandIreland.Theybickeredandquarreled:“whenIthinkofit...alltheseyears...butforme...whereyouwouldbe...(Decisively.)You’dbenothingmorealittlehipofbonesanthepresentminute.”FromtheirconversationwecouldknowthatVladimirisgenerallytheprotectiveoneintherelationship.“wedon’tmanagetoobadly,ehDidi,betweenthetwoofus?”Itwashewho,therecollect,savedEstragonfromdrowningintheRhônemanyyearsbefore,andhewho,inoneofthetenderestmomentsintheplay,wrapshiscoatovertheshouldersofthesleepingEstragonbeforewalkingupanddownswinginghisarmstokeepwarm,butunderneaththeirirritationsandimpatiencethereinaclosebond,andrecognitionoftheirsharedplight,fromwhichwecanknowthattheyhaveastrangeinterdependence,similartothatofIrelandandBritaininhistory.PuttheseinIrishhistory,wemayfoundthatBeckettusecharacterstodemonstratetherelationsbetweenBritainandIreland.BesidesVladimirandEstragon,therelationshipofPozzoandLuckyistheallusionofIrishhistory.IntherelationshipofPozzoandLuckycanbediscernedashadowofclassrelationsbetweenland-ownersorthewealthyandthosethatprovide45
themwithsuchusefuldiversions:“Butforhimallmythoughts,allmyfeelingwouldhavebeenofcommonthings(Pause.Withextraordinaryvehemence.)Professionalworries!(Calmer)Beauty,grace,truthofthefirstwater,Iknewtheywereallbeyondme.SoItookaknook.”Theirdivisionisdistinguished,Pozzoisalandlordowingtohisbelongings:aslaveorservant,apipe,abundantfoodsupply,avaporizer,whileLuckyisaslavewhocarriedallthethingsandobeyedtoPozzo’sordertogetsomesupplies.ThoughLuckycouldbringsomebenefits,hegotnothingspecialbutawhipandalsothreatenedtobetakentothefair,whichissimilartothesituationthatthelandlordinIrelandprovidedthethefarmerslandfromwhichtheycouldsupporttheirlivesandthelandlordcouldalsogetsomebenefits,butthey,likeLucky,weremaltreated.Similartothetwotramps’waiting,PozzoandLucky’ssearchingisliketheIrishwhoexperiencedtheHungerhadtoimmigratebuthadnoideaaboutwheretogo,andduringthisperiod,theirlivingconditionandphysicalproblemshadasignificantchange,thatis,PozzoisblindandLuckyisdeafinActII.AllthesearethewitnessofthehistoryofIreland.DuringtheGreatHungerperiod,theIrishlivedinmiserablelifeandevenworseafterwards.Landlordssufferedapainfulperiodinthehistory,especiallyduringtheGreatHunger,bothBritainandIrishdidn’tgivethemanyhelp,inordertogothroughthedifficulttime,thelawtheyenactedwasnotgoodforthelandlordtosomeextendbutlaterthereissomethingbenefitslandlordwasenacted.Thiscouldbeseenfromthetext:whenPozzo,theshadowoflandlord,fallsandyellsforhelp,VladimirandEstragoncontinuetalking,althoughnothingiscommunicatedintheirdialogue;allishopeless,orasVladimiraphoristicallyrepliestooneofEstragon’slongdiscourses,“wearebornmad.Someremainso.”exceptfortheirchargeforhelp,theyevenstrokePozzoandlasthelpedhimwentaway.Furthermore,inActII,thedifferencefirstcametousisthetreewhichisbareinActIandnowwithfourorfiveleaves.Wouldithintustherelationshipbetweenthetwotrampsisbetter?ThoughthetwotrampsdidnotchangealotinActII,theircommunicationisbetter,whichreflectedtheupanddownintermsoftheir46
relationshiphistorically.InEndgame,therelationshipbetweenHammandClovseemscomparabletothatbetweenPozzoandLucky.HammsharesmuchcommonswithPozzo:hiscapacityforcruelty,hispowerovertheother,hisattention-seekingbombastandneedforassurance.Clov,thoughunlikeLuckywitharopeinhisneck,ismorevocalthanLuckyinexpressinghisideas,butalsoseemstobeinsomesortofbondagetoHamm.Theirrelationshipbasedonthemutualneedandcanbeshadowsasthelandlordandslavefromthedetailthat:HAMM:I'llgiveyounothingmoretoeat.CLOV:Thenwe'lldie.HAMM:I'llgiveyoujustenoughtokeepyoufromdying.You'llbehungryallthetime.CLOV:Thenwewon'tdie.[Pause.]I'llgoandgetthesheet.[Hegoestowardsthedoor.]HAMM:No![Clovhalts.]I'llgiveyouonebiscuitperday.[Pause.]Oneandahalf.[Pause.](BeckettE48)ClovdependsonthesupportofHammwhoprocessesthecombinationofthecupboardandobeysHamm’sorder.ThecuriousbondbetweenHammthemasterandClovtheslaveconstitutesanotherthemeoftheplaywhichalludestherelationshipbetweenIrelandandEngland.OverClov,Hammholdsthepowerofonewhoisbothmasterandasortoffosterfather,“Butforme,...nofather,”Hammlikestotellhim,“butforHamm,...nohome.”Also,duringtheirtimetogetherClovhavebeenlockedwithHamminarelationshipofhatredanddependence.Hewouldliketokillhim,buthenevercan;hewouldliketoleave,butheneverhas.CLOV:Dothis,dothat,andIdoit.Ineverrefuse.Why?47
HAMM:You'renotableto....CLOV:Iwanttosing.HAMM:Ican'tpreventyou.[Pause.Clovturnstowardswindowright.](45)HammoccasionallyteasesClovwiththeideaofdisobedience,thoughhehaslittlerealpower,Clovhasastrongsensetoobey.Astheendapproaches,itbecomesevidentthatanewspiritofindependenceisgrowinginClov.AlthoughClovhasbeentryingtoleaveallthetimeandneversucceedindoingso,itnowbeginstoseemtoHammasifperhapshemay.AllthesehintthatthespiritofindependenceinIrelandanditseffortstodoso.AllThatFallwasBeckett’slaterplaythatisnotlikeWaitingforGodotandEndgameinwhichcharactersmainlyappearinpairs.Inthisplay,charactersaremorecomplicated,whichmirrorsthatIrelandwasnotconfinedtoEngland.theexplorationofthesinglecharacter-Mrs.RooneyhintsthataftertheendoftheoccupationIrelandwasanindependentcountryanditsrelationswithotherscharactersmayreflectthatthesituationthatitwasin.Allinall,historyprovidesmaterialforwriters.SodoesBeckett.HedemonstrateshisIrishnessbyrepresentingtheIrishhistoryandhistoricalizingtherelationsinconversationsinhisplays.48
ConclusionSamuelBeckettisanextremelydifficultwritertointerpret,thedifficultyofreadinghimliesinthedifficultyofunderstandingthehisconcernandthoughts.ThroughtheinterpretationofIrishness,itisevidentthatBecketthasaspecialfeelingaboutIrelandthoughhelivedinFrance.Hisworkisknownforitsintensepreoccupationwithpessimismandhumansuffering,notwithstandingitsbleakbeautyanddarklyacidcomedy.AlltheseechoedtheIrishhistorywhichistherootofIrishness.BeckettrepresentsIrishnessbyusingsettingstoidentifyIrishfeaturesinhisplays.Thoughhedidn’tliketheIrishliteratusrecircleandevenwasignored,thespecialfeelingtowardsIrelandstillrootsinhismind.Moreover,Beckettpaysmoreattentiontopeople’slivingconditionandmeditatesthefateoftheIrishbydisplayingthelandscapewhichisbleak.Inaword,thesettingsandlandscapeintheplaysarethemanifestationofBeckett’sIrishness.BeckettrebuildsIrishnessthroughreconstructingandrepresentingnationalidentity,andfilleditwiththreeaspects,tobespecific,spiritualcondition,physicslcondition,aswellaslanguage.TheyallarethecarrierthatreflectstheBeckett’sconcernonIreland.AsanIrish,BeckettneverforgetsIrishhistory.Therefore,hegoesontodigtherootofIrishness,thatis,Irishhistory.HeexploresIrishhistoryandnationalmemoryandwritesaboutIreland.Asisknowntoall,Irelandexperiencedadevastatedpast,itsnationalidentifywasunifiedafteralongperiod.Beckett,asaplaywright,dramatizethehistoryintohisplaysbyborrowingspecificeventssuchasGreatHunger.Moreover,heusesmetaphortovivifyingtherelationshipbetweencharacters,thatis,suchas,HammstandsforEngland,ClovactsasIrishinEndgame.ThisthesisstudiesBeckett’sreconstructingIrishnessfromtheabove-motionedthreeaspects,andemploysthepost-colonialcriticismasatooltocastanew49
perspectiveintermsofthisissue.ThetheoryofEdwardSiadandHomiBhabhahelptoassessBeckett’screation.HepromotesEnglishobjectivelyandmeanwhileeulogizingIrishgeographicspace,nationalcharacterandculture,whatismore,hejoinstheOrienttoformainclusiveIrishness.Beckett’sdramaticcareerhasbeenlongandhisthoughcomplexandeverchanging,whichisnoteasytograspandsometimescontradictory.50
WorksCitedArrowsmith,Aidan.TheLiteratureoftheIrishinBritain:AutobiographyandMemoir,LiteratureandHistory.,111-112Oct.2010.Beckett,Samuel.WaitingforGodot.London:FaberandFaber,1956.---.Endgame.NewYork:GrovePress,2003.Boxall,Peter.SinceBeckett:ContemporaryWritingintheWakeofModernism.ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2009.E.Said.Orientalism.London:PenguinBooksLtd,2003.Feldman,Matthew.Beckett’sBooks:ACulturalHistoryofSamuelBeckett’s‘InterwarNotes’.ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2006.Gontarski,S.E.“BeckettandIreland."Modernism/Modernity18.4(2011):921-924.Horowitz,Evan.Endgame:“BeginningtoEnd”.JournalofModernLiterature,summer(2004):121-128.Louar,Nadia.“Reconfigurationdechampdesétudesbeckettiennes:larègnedu'Beckettirlandais'.”SamuelBeckettToday/aujourd'hui25(2013):123-138,280.Lonergan,Patrick.ReviewofWatt,Stephen.BeckettandcontemporaryIrishwriting.Larrissy,Edward.“WritingIrishnessinNineteenth-CenturyBritishLiterature.”WordsworthCircle36.4(2005):167-168.MacDonald,Rónán.TheCambridgeIntroductiontoSamuelBeckett.Shanghai:ShanghaiForeignLanguageEducationPress,2008.McNaughton,James.“ReviewofMorin,Emilie.SamuelBeckettandtheProblemofIrishness.”Modernism/Modernity17.3(2010):704.Mooney,Susan.“ReviewofJeffers,JenniferM.‘Beckett’sMasculinity’”Modernism/Modernity18.4(2001):933-4---.“TracesHistoricized:BeckettTraced.”JournalofModernLiterature35.4(2012):187-191,216.Mihálycsa,Erika.“ReviewofMorin,Emilie.SamuelBeckettandtheproblemofIrishness.”HJEAS17.1(2011):181.---.“‘Writingtotheself-accompanimentofatonguethatisnotmine’:thefigureoftranslationinBeckett’swork.”HungarianJournalofEnglishandAmericanStudies.19.2(2013):343-374,483,487-488.---.“Writingonthemargins:Beckettscholarshipoutofthearchives.”HungarianJournalofEnglishandAmericanStudies.19.1(2013):147-163,230,232.Roberts,James.L.SamuelBeckett’sWaitingforGodotandOtherPlays.NewYork.HungryMinds,Inc.1980.Ross,Ciaran.““OntheBlackRoadHome”:Re-radicalizingBeckett’sIrishProtestantLegacy(ARe-readingofAllThatFall.”DQRStudiesinLiterature44(2010):199-217.Schirmer,GregoryA.“TheIrishConnection:AmbiguityofLanguageinAllThatFall.”CollegeLiterature8(1981):283-91Smith,Rusell.BeckettandEthnics.ContinuumInternationalPublishingGroup,2008.Stine,JeanC..Marowski,DanielG..ContemporaryLiteraryCriticism.GaleResearchCompany.1984.51
Watt,Stephen.BeckettandContemporaryIrishWriting.CambridgeUniversityPress,2009.Weintraub,Stanley.DictionaryofLiteraryBiography:Volume13:BritishDramatistSinceWorldWarII,Part1:A-L.GaleResearchCompany.1983.Power,Mary.“SamuelBeckett’s“Fingal”andtheIrishTradition.”JournalofModernLiterature.9.1(1981-1982):151-156.Said,Edward.W.CultureandImperialism.NewYork:VintageBooks,1994.Richardson,Brain.“TheatricalSpaceandtheDomainofEndgame.”,JournalofDramaticTheoryandCriticism,Spring2000:67-75.陈丽,爱尔兰文艺复兴与民族身份塑造,天津：南开大学出版社,2016.陈恕，爱尔兰文学，北京:外语教学与研究出版社，2000.程雪猛，英国戏剧选读，武汉：武汉大学出版社，2009.刘爱英，译短剧集（上），长沙:湖南文艺出版社，2016.刘爱英，塞缪尔·贝克特喜剧作品研究，重庆：重庆出版社，2012.邵明,刘宇宁.爱尔兰大饥荒，上海：上海人民出版社，2005.王振华，陈志瑞，李靖堃.爱尔兰.北京：社会科学文献出版社.2007.52
微信/支付宝扫码支付